______________________________________________________________    

     Book Section
     Introduction  :  Introduction
     Chapter One   :  Amazing Astronomy Of The Temple Era
     Chapter Two   :  Seven Divisions In The Annual Cycle
     Chapter Three :  A Formally Tracked Lunar Cycle
     Chapter Four  :  A Lunar Calendar Of Twelve Months
     Chapter Five  :  A Unique Annual Cycle Interface

     ______________________________________________________________

      Appendix Section
      Appendix A   :  A Calendar Of Weeks In Biblical Texts
      Appendix B   :  Seven Weeks In History
      Appendix C   :  Plural Sabbaths In New Testament Accounts
      Appendix D   :  A Lunar Calendar In Early Christian History
      Appendix E   :  Astronomy Of Enoch         
                       
     ______________________________________________________________

The focus of this document is on an unusual interpretation of the lunar-solar system--as once widely held by early astronomers in the Middle East.

Priest-astronomers of this region had somehow learned to track the apparent motions of the Earth and the Moon in reoccurring cycles-of-sevens. Through maps of 'seven', and even maps of 'seven-times-seven', these early astronomers had achieved an amazingly accurate determination of the Earth-Moon motions.

The current chapter begins a rather lengthy analysis of a hebdomadal time-tracking system used under the Second-Temple. (In total, five chapters, and a five-part appendix, are presented). 

The beginning chapters will focus upon the early use of a most remarkable jubilee time-cycle. The early count of this unusual seven-squared time-cycle leads to the completely startling recognition that a sophisticated interpretation of the Earth-Moon system was once held by early Semite astronomers. 

An Early Used Hebdomadal Calendar

It is evident that throughout the Middle East an extremely unique time-tracking system was once pervasively observed. In this region, a peculiar interpretation of the Earth-Moon was predicated upon a very formal system of counting hebdomadal time cycles. 

A primary feature of the time-count once used was the specific definition and observation of a cycle of seven-years:

"[Middle Eastern religion once practiced] … a system of cycles, notably the sabbatical, or seven-year, cycle. The sabbatical year was the seventh year, and the jubilee year followed seven sabbatical cycles. This was a pervasive system in the ancient Middle East…" (britannica.com: Middle Eastern religion).

The peculiar seven-year time-count revolved upon a larger count of seven-times-seven years, or 49 years--where a special jubilee year (or a fiftieth year) ultimately terminated the count:

"And you shall number … seven times seven years … (the space of … forty-nine years) … and you shall hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof… A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be unto you; you shall not sow; neither reap… for it is the jubilee… ". (AV text of Leviticus, Chapter 25:8-12.)

This early practiced hebdomadal time-tracking system when subjected to a modern mathematical analysis can be recognized to be most unusual. Ultimately, it becomes apparent that the peculiar seven-squared counts were based upon astronomy. A link to astronomy simply means that the jubilee count (once widely practiced in the Middle East) was based upon the orbital rates of the apparent Earth-Moon system. Essentially, modern astronomy amazingly proves that the early used hebdomadal counts were a means of precisely determining the reoccurrence of both the lunar cycle and the annual solar circle. 

An example of this astronomical link to both the lunar cycle and the annual solar circle can seemingly be recited from Scroll 4QOtot. The respective scroll contains the detail of a continuous jubilee count of years, and the scroll also describes a reoccurring third-year conjunction (presumably with the lunar cycle). (This lunar-solar conjunction at the third year was oddly referred to as the 'sign', or 'signs'--where the Hebrew word is 'ot', or the double 'ot + ot').

Scroll 4QOtot was recently recovered from scrolls which were written sometime during the Second-Temple Era. This document is unusual because--from it--an astronomical definition of the once counted jubilee cycle can be extracted. The scroll also suggests the rotation of the priests offices according to a specific jubilee schedule. 

The solution for the perpetually reoccurring signs amid the ongoing hebdomadal jubilee count (as explicitly shown on the scroll) is seemingly manifest in a straightforward count of lunar quarter-phases--where the average length of one lunar quarter-phase is equal to 7.38265 days. Ultimately, through a hebdomadal count of lunar quarter-phases, it can be understood that the priestly calendar must have separately counted one lunar quarter-phase (or 7.38265 days) at the boundary of each third annual cycle.

Perceptually, Scroll 4QOtot was based upon an ongoing hebdomadal count of lunar phases. This count of phases simply skipped-over the one lunar quarter-phase at the boundary of each third year… the time when the lunar cycle conjunction (or the 'ot') occurred.

From this somewhat strange perspective (where lunar phases are counted in seven-squared segments, and where the extraneous count of one lunar phase is skipped-over at the rate of each third year) a more comprehensive definition of the once counted Jubilee Calendar is very easy to recognize--as shown in the following diagram: 

      A Perpetual Count Of 49 Lunar-Phases Across 49 Years *
      ___________________________________________________________

         Seven-Year Cycle 1   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 2   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 3   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 4   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 5   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 6   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 7   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
              Fiftieth Year   49
      ___________________________________________________________

       * -- One lunar phase is extraneously counted each 3rd year.
      49 -- Denotes a count of 49 lunar-phases each annual cycle.
      Lunar Count = 18262.21 days (or 2473.66667 quarter-phases).
      Solar Year Count (at 50 years) = 18262.11 Days.

This remarkable astronomical calendar achieves 365.24 days in the passage of each segment of 49 phases (as more fully documented below), and this length very closely equals the actual passage of the annual solar cycle (also 365.24 days).

The jubilee count of lunar phases (as outlined on Scroll 4QOtot) amazingly reveals that--internal to a wider progression of seven-squared years--a repeating set of seven-squared lunar-phases can also be counted. The internal set of seven-squared phases (as diagrammed above) must perpetually schedule the sign (or 'ot') in order to achieve a precise annual interface (or 365.24 days over average time). Essentially, a fixed seven-squared set of lunar phases precisely interfaces with a seven-squared set of years as long as the count of one lunar-phase (the 'ot') is specially counted-apart at the boundary of each third year. 

It is then fully remarkable that a seven-squared count of lunar phases--over average time--very precisely matches the length of 365.24 days, or the length of one annual circuit (just as outlined on Scroll 4QOtot). 

In consideration of the early observance of this fantastic multidimensional interface, it becomes clearer that Temple services may have been shrouded in a most remarkable lunar-solar schedule. (This astonishing hebdomadal schedule seems to reflect very unusual--even advanced--knowledge of the Earth-Moon system.) 
For additional documentation of an astronomical jubilee cycle, refer to: 

Advanced Astronomy In Biblical Texts

The Annual Cycle--As Seven-Squared Count

This remarkable usage of a system of seven-squared counts--as is evident from certain documents produced during the Second Temple Era--seems to indicate that early astronomers were interpreting the lunar-solar phenomena in a unique way. (The remarkable time-tracking system they once employed seemingly reflects the existence of order and fixed design in the apparent Earth-Moon system.) 

The early usage of seven-squared cycles does not seem to be synonymous with purely abstract number counts of days or years. Instead, the unique count of seven-squared cycles seems to reflect the adherence to a complex systems interpretation of the Earth-Moon cycles. (This advanced interpretation was very much based upon the combined orbital rates of the apparent Moon and the apparent Sun (as they appear from the spinning Earth).

As noted in the previous section, it is of very great significance that through a fixed count of lunar phases, it is ultimately possible to determine the length of the annual solar cycle (in the precise amount of 365.24 days). 

This precise determination of the annual solar cycle inherently results through a simple fixed count of 49 lunar phases (a seven-squared number). 

To more fully illustrate the existence (and the significance) of a perpetual astronomical count of 49 lunar-phases in each annual cycle, a simple equation can be used to state the length of the annual cycle--as follows:

seven-squared lunar phases + Ot1 + Ot2 = 365.2443 days 

… where Ot1 is equal to one additional lunar phase at the rate of each third year, and where Ot2 is equal to one additional lunar-phase at the rate of each seventh year in fifty years. 

For analysis purposes, the rate of the Ot1 sign will hereafter be referred to as the X1 rate, and the rate of the Ot2 sign will hereafter be referred to as the X2 rate.

Further note that the X1 rate = 1/3 phase (or 0.3333 phases) per annual cycle; and the X2 rate = 7/50 (or 0.14 phases) per annual cycle. Thus, the annual cycle rate of X1 + X2 = 0.47333; and 49.47333 phases = 365.2443 days.

It is significant that amid a continuous count of seven-times-seven lunar phases that both X1 and X2 inexplicably appear--and very precisely so--at the respective boundary of an annual cycle. This inexplicable annual cycle interface--of seven-squared phases (including the additional annual boundary interface of X1 and of X2)--can easily be interpreted as evidence of a deliberately ordered Earth-Moon system. 

Here, it becomes evident that the timing rate of the annual cycle (or 365.2422 days) is satisfactorily the same (over average time) as a specific fixed count of lunar quarter-phases (also 365.2443 days). 

Essentially, a continuous count of forty-nine lunar phases is demonstrable to precisely bound with the length of 365.24 days (over average time)--where external to this fixed-count of the annual cycle is the separate count of one lunar phase (or 7.38265 days) each seventh year in a cycle of fifty years (or an X2 count), and where also external to the count of the annual cycle is the separate count of one lunar-phase (or 7.38265 days) each and every third year (or an X1 count). 

Ancient Israelite Priests seem to have somehow been aware of this lunar-based definition of the jubilee time structure (or a fixed count of seven-squared lunar phase--as cited above). This is evident from information recorded in Scroll 4QOtot--which provides a comprehensive definition of the jubilee time cycle. (This scroll additionally records the frequency and usage of the special Earth-Moon signs or 'ot + ot' at the endless annual boundaries of X1 and X2).

The schedule--as shown on Scroll 4QOtot--seems to mirror the practices of the established Temple system. Here, it is important to note that the Essenes (a religious group who presumably authored the Sea Scrolls) probably broke away from the established priesthood sometime during the Second Temple Era. It is then significant that this group seemingly devised their own religious calendar in opposition to the established Temple. Consequently, calendar information, as preserved by the Essenes, may only partially reflect the original definition of the Temple Calendar. This opposition of the Essenes to the established Temple system is a factor to carefully weigh when interpreting calendar information recorded on the Sea Scrolls. 

A Seven-Year Calendar

Information as presented illustrates the probability that the Temple once used a fixed count of lunar-quarter phases (where an annual count of 49 phases, or seven-squared phases, extended across seven-sets of seven years, or seven-squared years). 

Some very ancient documents, not part of the canonized Bible (such as Scroll 4QOtot, and specifically, the Book Of Jubilees), seem to place emphasis on a cycle of only forty-nine years. 

In contradiction to this, the writings of Leviticus in the Bible describe a special forty-nine year cycle always exceeded by a fiftieth year (the year of the jubilee):

"And you shall number … seven times seven years … (the space of … forty-nine years) … and you shall hallow the fiftieth year …A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be unto you; you shall not sow; neither reap… for it is the jubilee… ". (AV text of Leviticus, Chapter 25:8-12.)

Modern knowledge seems to verify the correctness of the Leviticus interpretation for a 50 year jubilee cycle--where it almost obviously seems that a fixed count of lunar phases defines an explicit fiftieth year from amid a revolving cycle of seven-times-seven years: 

      A Perpetual Progression Of 7-times-7 Lunar-Phases *
      __________________________________________________________

        (1) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
        (2) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
        (3) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
        (4) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
        (5) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
        (6) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
        (7) 7 years = 7-times-7-times-7 phases (plus 1 phase)
          50th year =         7-times-7 phases
      __________________________________________________________

      *--One lunar-phase is extraneously counted each 3rd year.
      Lunar Count = 18262.21 days (or 2473.66667 quarter-phases).
      Solar Year Count (at 50 years) = 18262.11 Days.

The diagram depicts an intelligent progression of seven-year cycles where each seven-year cycle equates to a progression of seven-cubed lunar quarter-phases (or seven-times-seven-times-seven lunar quarter-phases). Essentially, seven-sets of seven years precisely terminate at a fiftieth year. The fiftieth year--as a terminal delimiter--is in turn precisely equal to the length of seven-squared lunar quarter-phases.

Here, it is pertinent to note that a calendar of only 49 years was devised and practiced by some among the Jewish sects (presumably the group of the Essenes). This calendar was devised in opposition to the established Second Temple, and the change specifically involved the count of the 50th year (which was dropped). Thus, the calendar used by the opposition only counted 49 years per jubilee cycle. (Unfortunately, this altered count resulted in a completely abstract count of annual circuits). It is also significant that the opposition calendar dropped the count of a specific 50th day from the calendar (as more fully detailed below). (Unfortunately, this altered count resulted in a completely abstract cycle of 7-times-7 days for the definition of 7 weeks).

Modern astronomy seems to satisfactorily prove the 50-year count was astronomically correct (where amid a fixed progression of lunar phases a special sign does actually occur… and at the endless rate of X1 and X2 as documented). (For additional information, refer to 'Advanced Astronomy In Biblical Texts').

This seven-squared count of lunar phases achieves an average interval of 365.2443 days in each annual cycle (which is very closely equal to the modern annual cycle of 365.2422 days). 

The astounding indication of intelligent lunar-solar design--as explicitly delineated in the Leviticus description of a jubilee time cycle--seems to mirror unusual, even advanced, knowledge of the lunar-solar system.

Seven-Squared Design

It is fully remarkable that through the explicit biblical description of a time-tracking system composed of seven-squared time-structures it is possible to discover that the lunar-solar system actually does interface with time-structures of seven-squared design. One such time structure can be recognized in the length of seven-squared lunar cycles--where this complex structure is simultaneously defined by the rate of the rotation of the Earth. Here, it is apparent the Earth's rotational rate revolves into very precise alignment in correspondence to the length of 49 lunar cycles (or seven-squared lunar cycles). This precise rotational alignment can be stated as a mathematical equation--as follows:

49 lunar cycles are equal to 1446.999 days

From the perspective of an observer on the Earth, the rate of Earth's rotation comes into conjunction--or interfaces by an almost whole number of days--with 'seven-squared'(or 49) cycles of the Moon. This '7 times 7' relationship--or 49 lunar cycles revolving into precise interface with the rate of Earth's rotation--is then evidence of what could be intelligent design in the Earth-Moon system.

It is interesting to here note that 49 lunar cycles do not exactly interface with a whole number set of days. Essentially, the modern rate of the lunar period (which completes in 29.53059 days) is out of alignment by the small amount of about 1.9 seconds. From this, it is important to recognize that Earth's spin rate is slowing down throughout time (by the small amount of 0.001 to 0.003 seconds with each passing century). Considering this slow down of the Earth's spin (which is seemingly verifiable through ancient eclipse data), a seven-squared set of lunar cycles did--in the not distant past--perfectly interface with the rate of the spin of the Earth. (The existence of this perfect interface in the not distant past may indicate a time-of-origin for the current spin rate). 

For additional information concerning the slowing spin of the Earth, refer to: 

A Case For Created Time
 

From information presented in the previous chapter, it is rather evident that during the Second-Temple Era, priest-astronomers possessed knowledge of a remarkable definition of the annual cycle--where an astronomical calendar of seven-times-seven (or 49) lunar weeks (or phases) was counted. This formal fixed count--over average time--is equal to 365.24 days (as long as the separate additional count of the signs are included). 

A formal count of seven-times-seven (or 49) lunar weeks (or phases) inherently divides the length of the annual solar circuit into 7 equal parts. Essentially, each annual solar cycle can be stated to contain 7 specific time-divisions as follows: 

          Seven Equal Time-Divisions In Each Annual Cycle 
          _________________________________________________
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                   7 lunar-weeks  (or phases) 
          _________________________________________________
          Total:  49 lunar-weeks  (or phases)

A fixed-count of 49 lunar weeks (or 49 phases) interfaces with 365.24 days--over average time--as long as the signs (or' ot' and 'ot') intervals are additionally included (at X1 and at X2 as completely documented in Chapter One).

As a logical calendar division, it is then significant that one-seventh part of the annual cycle equates to a fixed formal count of 7 lunar quarter-phases (as diagrammed above).

Here, it seems of associated significance to discover that some Semite groups once used a specific seven-week cycle to track time with. This included the Babylonian Cultures, Jewish groups in exile, and, later-on, some of the Jewish sects. (Remarkably, the usage of a seven-weeks religious calendar seems to have once been a feature of the mainstream Jewish Calendar--as further detailed below).

It is noteworthy that--even in modern times--the Falasha Jews (a tribe of Sabbath practicing peoples discovered in the African country of Ethiopia) still observe a continuous cycle of seven weeks… and within a strictly hebdomadal cycle. According to the centuries-old practices of this group, a prayer schedule matches each of the respective Sabbaths. The seventh Sabbath (Legata Sanbat) is uniquely special and includes additional prayers, festivities, and a sanctification service. (For additional information, refer to on-line web-sites featuring information on Falasha Jews.)

Because the Second Temple is indicated to have counted the annual cycle (through a formal count of seven lunar-phases), it seems completely plausible that the early count of a seven-weeks cycle stemmed from this count of seven lunar-phases.

Essentially, the early count of seven-weeks may have represented something more than an abstract count of 49 days! Instead, the original count of seven-weeks may actually have been equivalent to 7 lunar quarter-phases, or to the length of one-seventh part of the annual cycle. 

In order to achieve this extended length, it is necessary for a seven-squared count of days to include a periodic additional day (or days)--such as the rate of a 50^th day.

The following diagram illustrates exactly how an astronomical count of seven-squared (or 49) days can precisely match the length of one-seventh part of the annual circuit (or the length of 7 lunar-phases):

            Annual Cycle (One-Seventh Part) * 
            _________________________________________ 
            Week 1 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase) 
            Week 2 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase)
            Week 3 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase)
            Week 4 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase)
            Week 5 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase)
            Week 6 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase)
            Week 7 = 7-days   (Lunar quarter-phase)
            50th Day = 1-day  (Renewal-Day for cycle) 
            _________________________________________ 

            * -- Requires plus 1 day each lunar-cycle

The model--as diagrammed--demonstrates that a count of seven-squared days logically interfaces with one-seventh part of the annual cycle, or the length of 7 lunar quarter-phases (as long as a special 50^th day is added to the count).

Significantly, this model also requires the additional rate of one day each 4^th week (or one of Earth's rotation for each lunar period) in-order to achieve appropriate lunar cycle alignment. 

Thus, a seven-squared count of whole-days is seemingly a very good interpretation to use for resolving the rate of Earth's rotation (both into the lunar cycle, and also into the annual solar circuit).

Through this peculiar count of 49 of Earth's rotations, one extraneous Earth rotation exists in correspondence with the passage of each lunar period, and in addition, one extraneous Earth rotation exists to correspond to one-seventh of the passage of the annual solar circuit.

It seems that an ongoing count of 49 days (with the inclusion of the two rates of extraneous days--as cited above) is very closely equal to the length of 7 lunar quarter-phases (where each lunar week is equal to 7.38 days over average time--as more thoroughly documented in the subsequent chapter). 

Thus, the early definition of the seven-week cycle may equate to an astronomical count of seven-times-seven days--a multidimensional time count which functionally interfaces both with the lunar period, and with the annual solar circuit (or to much more than an abstract count of only 49 days). 

Ancient Observance Of Seven-Weeks 

The origin of a cycle of seven weeks is obscure in ancient history, but its usage can probably be linked to a very early used Pentecontad Calendar:

"… those who have tried to find the source from which Israel derived its seven-day week and Sabbath in Babylonian or other non-Jewish cultures have failed. Yet the evidence to which these writers have appealed could well be the last relics of an earlier Sabbath-institution, even if they are not sufficiently similar to deserve to be regarded as the formative origins of a later one. The 'Pentecontad Calendar', which Lidegard and Julius Lewy (followed by Julius Morgenstern) claim to have traced among the Semitic peoples of Assyria, Babylon, Syria, and Palestine from the end of the third millennium BC onwards, was an annual calendar to some extent based on periods of seven or eight days (Lewy, Origin', pp.1-152); and it seems certain from the evidence quoted by Rordorf that the Babylonians divided the month into four parts, particularly distinguishing the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days, and called the full moon (round about the fourteenth day sappattu." (Sabbath Lecture Notes, by Samuel Waldren)

In this very ancient Pentecontad Calendar, a special 50^th day (an eighth day) followed a formal count of seven weeks (or 49 days). This count of seven weeks plus the renewal day (or the eighth day) also included an occasional festival week. 

" …this calendar has been aptly designated as the pentecontad calendar because of the significant role which the number 50 played in it. Its basic unit of time-reckoning was the week of seven days. Its secondary time unit was the period of fifty days, consisting of seven weeks - i.e. seven times seven days - plus one additional day, a day which stood outside the week and which was known and celebrated as 'atsrah', a festival of conclusion or termination - termination, of course, of the pentecontad or fifty-day period. The year of this calendar consisted of seven pentecontads …". (Interpreters Dictionary: Sabbaths).

The ancient usage of a cycle of seven-squared days is, at least in part, verifiable from Chapter 23 of the Bible Book of Leviticus (where this respective passage graphically describes a seven-weeks cycle succeeded by a special festival day):

"... When you... shall reap the harvest... ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the LORD, to be accepted for you: on the morrow after the sabbath the priest shall wave it. ... And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new [or chadash] … offering unto the LORD. (Leviticus, Chapter 23:10-23).

Vowels do not appear in the original Hebrew texts, but only the consonants. The usage of only consonants to form words sometimes presents the translator with a choice of root meanings. For example, the Hebrew word 'chodesh' or 'hodesh' (which means: 'renewal' or 'new beginnings') is recorded something like 'ch + d + sh' (a word formed by using only three consonants and none of the vowels). Then, as a further example, the bible describes a 'chadash' offering in reference to a seven weeks cycle (Leviticus 23:16). This offering might have been a 'new' offering (as translated), but it also might have been an offering presented in association to a specific divisional cycle of the ancient calendar--where this divisional cycle was delimited by a specially observed offering day (the day of the Chadash Offering).

Based upon the definition of a specific count of seven weeks (as cited from Leviticus, Chapter 23), it is extremely noteworthy that the count included a specific 50^th day. This interrupted Sabbath count looks very much like an astronomical count of 49 days, or a count specifically interrupted by a 50^th day--as cited above. Essentially, the seven-weeks count of the Bible may actually be synonymous to a formal count of the annual cycle (by exactly one-seventh part).

Here, it is additionally noteworthy that a specific span of weeks (a formal count) seems to have been observed for the sowing and harvest cycle in biblical times--where the beginning of the harvest was specially commemorated, and ultimately the reaping was ceremoniously acknowledged. 

"[God]… giveth rain, both the former and the latter, in his season: he reserveth unto us the appointed weeks of the harvest" AV text of Jeremiah Chapter 5:24.

A better understanding of these 'weeks of harvest' may come from certain biblical texts which imply a specific time-sequence for the annual harvest. 

This harvest order is obvious from the annual growing cycle in that the various grains and fruits mature at different time intervals--where barley ripens first of all, then other fruits become ripe (such as wine-grapes and olives). 

Three specific time-stages in the annual harvest can seemingly be extracted from a number of biblical texts--where: 1. Grain; 2. Wine; and 3. Oil are almost always listed in the very same order:

"… the fruit of thy land, ... 1. Corn, and... 2. Wine, and... 3. Oil … " (AV text of Deuteronomy 7:13).

The old English word: 'Corn'--as used in the AV Bible--in more modern English should be: 'Wheat' or 'Grain'. The biblical reference to 'Wine' probably implies the harvest of wine- grapes (which would subsequently be fermented into wine).

This same order: 1. Grain; 2. Wine;, and 3. Oil can also be found in the following Bible passages: Deuteronomy 11:14; Deuteronomy 12:17; Deuteronomy 14:23; Deuteronomy 18:4; Deuteronomy 28:51; 1 Chronicles 9:29; 2 Chronicles 2:15; 2 Chronicles 31:5; 2 Chronicles 32:28; Ezra 6:9; Nehemiah 10:37; Nehemiah 10:39; Nehemiah 13:5; Nehemiah 13:12; Jeremiah 31:12; Hosea 2:8; and Hosea 2:22.

This explicit sequence: 1. Grain, 2. Wine; and 3. Oil is also recorded on certain of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Here, it is noteworthy that according to some of the Sea Scrolls a sequence of seven weeks was used to count between each of the three harvests. 

This specific seven-weeks count was used to formally divide a same time-interval between three successive single-day festivals (for: 1. Grain, 2. Wine, and 3. Oil). 

An excellent example of these equally spaced festival days (very formally spaced seven-weeks apart) is recited on the Temple Scroll, as follows --

1. First Harvest Festival: 

"…You shall count--seven complete Sabbaths from the day of your bringing the sheaf of [the wave-offering. You shall c]ount until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. You shall count [fifty] days. You shall bring a new grain-offering….it is the feast of Weeks and the feast of Firstfruits, an eterna[l] memorial. "…

2. Second Harvest Festival: 

"You [shall count] seven weeks from the day when you bring the new grain-offering… seven full Sabbaths [shall elapse un]til you have counted fifty days to the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. [You] shall [bring] new wine for a drink-offering… "

3. Third Harvest Festival: 

"[You sha]ll count from that day [for the new-wine offering] seven weeks, seven times (seven days), forty-nine days; there shall be seven full Sabbaths; until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath you shall count fifty days. You shall then offer new oil…"

(From the Temple Scroll--11QT=11Q19, 20, 4Q365a--XVIII-XXI. The English translation--as shown--was borrowed from The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls In English, by Geza Vermes). 

A sequence of seven-week festivals can also be identified from the following scrolls: 4Q325, 4Q326, 4Q327, 4Q394; where English translations can be found in: Dead Sea Scrolls A New Translation, by Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook.)

Thus, from the Dead Sea Scrolls, the implied usage of a calendar consisting of a formal sequence of seven-weeks cycles can be identified.

___________________________________________________

Three Pentecontad Cycles (From The Temple Scroll) ___________________________________________________

1. Seven-weeks terminated by a New-Grain-Offering at Day 50.

2. Seven-weeks terminated by a New-Wine-Offering at Day 50.

3. Seven-weeks terminated by a New-Oil-Offering at Day 50.

___________________________________________________

Based upon the composite information, its logical to interpret that the Temple Calendar included at least three formally counted seven-weeks segments. The first segment corresponded to seven weeks for a new grain harvest, the second pentecontad corresponded to seven-weeks for the wine-grape harvest, and the third cycle corresponded to seven-weeks for the harvest of olives and honey. 

To add to the evidence that a seven-weeks calendar was once observed under the Second Temple, the writings of Philo, the Jewish-Greek philosopher of the First Century, can be recited. This additional evidence can be extracted from his treatise: 'de Vita Contemplativa'--as follows:

The seventh day is … for relaxation……Once every seven weeks [a] supreme festival, which the number 50 has had assigned to it… It .. a banquet … of reverence for the holy table of offering in the sacred vestibule of the Temple, to signify … the unleavened bread reserved for the priests. (Translation borrowed from Therapeutae, Encyclopedia Of Religion And Ethics By Hastings).

The 'de Vita Contemplativa' (or 'The Contemplative Life') describes a sect of Alexandrine Jews known as the Therapeutae (or the Healers). This Jewish communal group withdrew from all commercial enterprise in a fuller pursuit of religious study and prayer.

Philo's reference to this Jewish Sect's Supreme Festival (at a 50th Day), and the tie to 'the holy table of offering' indicates that the Temple might also have celebrated this same Supreme Festival (and also once every seven weeks).

Bread offerings were formally set-forth as special offerings at each Sabbath interval by the Temple Priests. (Refer to: Leviticus 24:8). The noted 'Supreme Festival' by Philo would have occurred exactly inline with the Sabbath circuit (coinciding with a special festival day which followed the Seventh Sabbath).

A 50^th-Day Feast and its observance under the Second Temple can surprisingly be verified from the writings of Josephus, the priest-historian, (also of the First Century) as follows:

"... they [must first] offer the first-fruits of their barley… after this it is that they may publicly or privately reap their harvest… When a week of weeks has passed over after this sacrifice, (which weeks contain forty and nine days,) on the fiftieth day, which is Pentecost, but is called by the Hebrews Asartha, which signifies Pentecost, they bring to God... [burnt offerings]… nor is there anyone of the [subsequent 7-weeks] festivals but in it they offer burnt-offerings… bread [loaves]… without leaven…, baked the day before the Sabbath... were brought into the holy place on the morning of the Sabbath, and set upon the holy table… and there they remained till another Sabbath (Antiquities, Book 3, Chapter 9,5-7). [Note that brackets have been inserted into the above quote to help improve the probable original meaning.]

The ceremonial feasting upon unleavened bread in association with this 50^th-Day Festival is cited by both Philo, and by Josephus (and even by other ancient writers--as shown in the appendix). 

Based upon the composite information, a number of summary points can be raised... and from these it is very reasonable to believe that at least a form of the Pentecontad Calendar was in widespread practice during the Second Temple Era:

• The Bible Book of Leviticus describes a 50^th-Day Festival in association with the harvest cycle.
• Numerous Biblical passages show a formalized harvest sequence of 1. Grain; 2. Wine; and 3. Oil.
• The Temple Scroll describes a series of three 50^th-Day Festivals (all occurring in the harvest sequence of 1. Grain; 2. Wine; and 3. Oil.
• Scrolls: 4Q325, 4Q326, 4Q327, 4Q394 also describe a seven-weeks festival and in connection with three ordered harvest intervals: 1. Grain; 2. Wine; and 3. Oil.
• 'de Vita Contemplativa' (by Philo) describes Alexandrine Jews of the First Century celebrating a seven-weeks festival (in association with the 50^th-Day), 
• 'Antiquities' (by Josephus, also of the First Century) clearly mentions a cycle of seven Sabbaths (and a 50^th-Day Festival).
• In both 'Antiquities' and in 'de Vita Contemplativa' this 50^th-Festival was held in association with the Sabbath. This same cycle of 7 Sabbaths (with a 50^th Festival) is alleged to be the very same as celebrated under the Second-Temple (where both accounts graphically refer to the unleavened bread presented upon the holy table of offering).
• Modern Falasha Jews, from a centuries-old custom, continue to count and specially observe a cycle of seven-weeks--where a specific prayer is recited upon each of the Sabbaths, and a special sanctification ceremony is performed for the seventh Sabbath. 
• Most significantly of all, the orbital rates of the Earth-Moon seem to very literally define an intelligent seven-squared progression of days, or the pentecontad cycle (as documented). 

Then, it isn't unreasonable to believe that the Pentecost Feast was celebrated as a reoccurring festival, and it was held at a frequency of each 7^th week (minimally three, and probably more of these 50^th festivals were held throughout the year). 

The focus, or theme, of the festival is indicated to have changed throughout the harvest cycle (from first waving barley, to celebrating bread, to celebrating wine, to celebrating oil, etc.).

It is of further interest that the early usage of the Pentecontad Calendar can seemingly be identified from the Bible Book Of Genesis (Chapters 7 and 8), where in the chronological account of a great flood, some of the time-spans recorded appear to have been in lengths of pentecontads. For example, it seems that a span of three pentecontads, or a recorded period of 150 days, applies to an initial period of flood, when the waters prevailing, or increasing:

"… the waters prevailed [gabar, or to be stronger] and were increased greatly… and the waters prevailed [gabar] exceedingly … and the waters prevailed [gabar] upon the earth an hundred and fifty days" (Gen. 7:18,19,24). 

The subsequent chronology seems to show an additional 150 day period, when the waters were receding:

"…and God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the water asswaged [shakak, or appease]: The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped and the rain from heaven was restrained: And the water returned [shuwb] from off the earth continually: and after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated [chacer, or lessened] (Gen. 8:1-3).

The account explicitly describes a cycle of 150 days, which happens to be three pentecontads. If the waters were increasing for 3 pentecontads and then decreasing for 3 pentecontads, the total number of elapsed pentecontad cycles was minimally six (even though it isn't exactly clear if the first 3 pentecontads were immediately followed by a second cycle of 3 pentecontads, or if a chronological gap occurred in-between the two 150-day cycles. Assuming that these cycles were calendar boundaries, the calendar might have been arranged with an intercalated gap between the two 150-day cycles. The chronology (as detailed in Genesis 7-8) seems to show at least a chain of 3 pentecontad cycles, and this is in seeming agreement with the Temple Scroll (as cited above) and with other biblical texts (as also cited above) which also outline a specific chain of 3 pentecontads (or the sequential celebration of 1. Grain; of 2.Wine; and of 3. Oil). The Temple Scroll does additionally describe the appearance of a week-long festival which immediately occurred after the celebration of the 3rd pentecontad, and this may help explain the chronology detailed in Genesis 7-8. (For additional information, refer to Appendix A).

Early Christian Bishop Nazianzen seemingly described the event of Pentecost (as perhaps occurring more frequently than a single time in the annual solar circuit):

"The children of the Hebrews do honor to the number Seven, according to the legislation of Moses ….; I cannot say by what rules of analogy, or in consequence of what power of this number; anyhow they do honor to it. … But this honor which they pay to it is not confined to days alone, but also extends to years. That belonging to days the Sabbath proves, because it is continually observed among them; and in accordance with this the removal of leaven is for that number of days. And that belonging to years is shewn by the seventh year, the year of Release; and it consists not only of Hebdomads ['Sevens'], but of Hebdomads of Hebdomads, alike in days and years. The Hebdomads of days give birth to Pentecost, a day called holy among them; and those of years to what they call the Jubilee, which also has a release of land, and a manumission of slaves, and a release of possessions bought. For this nation consecrates to God, not only the firstfruits of offspring, or of firstborn, but also those of days and years. Thus the veneration paid to the number Seven gave rise also to the veneration of Pentecost. For seven being multiplied by seven generates fifty all but one day, which we [Christians] borrow from the world to come, at once the Eighth and the first, or rather one and indestructible. For the present sabbatism of our souls can find its cessation there, that a portion [of Sabbath time] may be given to seven and also to eight..." (Oration XLI: On Pentecost, II).]

A festival of the seven-weeks (or a Pentecost) is noted in several instances throughout both the Old and New Testaments, and a festival of Pentecost (which literally means: 'count 50') appears frequently in the writings of early Christians. 

From a number of early Christian sources, notably the letters of Athanasius, it is possible to determine that the very first pentecontad of the year was carefully observed by early Christians. 

Relative to the Temple Era of history, the Book of Maccabees2 references: "the festival of weeks" (Chapter 12:3), and the implied usage of a calendar of seven-weeks is further evident from other early documents --such as the Apocryphal Book of Tobit-which directly mentions a date as occurring: "before 50 days" (refer to Chapter 1:21). Another passage of this same book references: "the feast of the seven weeks" (refer to Chapter 2:1). 

The feast on the day of Pentecost also is mentioned several times in 'Wars' and 'Antiquities' written by Josephus, the Jewish priest-historian. These manuscripts were written for primarily a Roman readership, and they contain abundant detail--so as to bring Hebrew dates and festivals into the proper comprehension of the reader. (All the important Jewish festival dates and feast days are duly cross-referenced to the appropriate month of their appearance in primarily the Greek Calendar). Almost mysteriously, the festival marking a count of 50 (or Pentecost) is not referenced to appear in any respective month of the annual cycle (neither in the Jewish Calendar, nor in the Greek Calendar). In consideration of the fastidious calendar detail consistently provided by Josephus, this omission seems very unusual. The obvious reason for the skipped detail seems to be that this respective 50 day feast was cyclic and the festival did not appear in only one fixed month in the year. Rather, this feast appeared according to a seven-week cycle (and therefore could not be tagged to a respective calendar month). 

Returning to the definition of the first of the seven-weeks cycles--as mentioned in Leviticus Chapter 23--this circuit terminated in an interesting Feast-Of-Firstfruits. 

The Book of Jubilees states that Noah observed this feast both as the Feast-Of-Weeks, and as the Feast-Of-Firstfruits. (This overlap of the Feast-Of-Weeks and one special firstfruits case can also be recited from certain portions of the Temple Scroll--as listed above).

The composite calendar information--if valid--tends to indicate that a version of a seven-weeks calendar (possibly consisting of more than a single seven-weeks cycle) was in widespread use, and it may have been in use in the far distant past--even prior to the time of Moses? 

In Can We Rely On The Hebrew Calendar?, the ancient usage of a Pentecontad Calendar is described as follows:

Calendar dissidents who insist we follow "the calendar God gave to Moses" cannot go back for historical support more than the period of the latter part of the Second Temple and the third and fourth centuries AD. This is at least a thousand years between the historical evidence and the time of Moses. Furthermore, there is evidence the Israelites used at least three and possibly four different calendars during this period (The Calendar of the Book of Jubilees, Its Origin and Character, by Julian Morgenstern, Vol. 5, 35). They used differing systems of months one after another and sometimes more than one at the same time (Schiaparelli, 104). There is a custom today found among the peasants in Palestine of using a yearly calendar of "seven fifties" which involves a sequence of fifty days. It is believed this custom was derived from the Pentecontad calendar. This calendar was found in Assyria, Babylonia, as well as in ancient Israel. It was built around seven periods of seven weeks with a feast day added at the end of each period. The year ran 350 days with an added fifteen-day period. Some doubt this calendar was officially used, but historically conquered nations usually accepted the calendars of the conquerors. Old Assyrian business documents reveal a fifty-day period (The Origin of the Week and the Oldest West Asiatic Calendar, by Hildegard and Julius Lewy, 47), and this calendar was not restricted to Assyria. The Babylonians of this time-period practiced the same thing. When they came into the Fertile Crescent, the Amorites introduced a calendar with the same features (ibid). It consisted of seven complete pentecontads with days added between two of the periods in order to complete a full year. The Babylonians used a Pentecontad calendar of 366 days--seven pentecontads and an added sixteen-day intercalation. At a later time the Assyrians discontinued this Pentecontad calendar for the luni-solar one (ibid, 49, 71). 

According to Elizabeth Achelis, a dramatic change took effect in the calendar during the Mosaic period. Pentecontads of fifty days with seven weeks of forty-nine days were devised followed by a fiftieth day "special to the Lord." This calendar was in use for many centuries. Much later, during the Babylonian captivity, this calendar was discarded and an unvarying seventh-day Sabbath was introduced with the Babylonian luni-solar calendar as its foundation (Achelis, 87). It is unlikely Ms. Achelis is correct regarding the time periods spoken of above. There is no indication that Israel departed from God in any fashion during the days of Moses and Joshua. When the Pentecontad calendar was introduced into Israel it had to be at a much later date. Also, the introduction of a luni-solar calendar after or during the Babylonian captivity constituted a reform and a return to a luni-solar calendar that goes back at least to the time of Moses. 

The Lewys inform us that the Pentecontad calendar was intercalated during two periods during the year. The Jews suppressed the fiftieth day of each Pentecontad so that the weekly Sabbath would not be interrupted. Some believe the Hebrews used this calendar when they left Egypt. When the First Temple was destroyed this calendar was in use. When the Second Temple was built, the luni-solar calendar was readily accepted as part of the reformation. As a result the Pentecontad calendar was forgotten (Lewy, 84, 88, 106, 118, 124, 126, 143). For those who may wish to examine the Lewy's book, the following should be called to the reader's attention: They are incorrect on the dates regarding the Exodus, and there is no evidence the Pentecontad calendar was in use during the days of Joshua. Also, while it is possible the Israelites used a Pentecontad calendar before they left Egypt, God gave Moses a calendar (Ex. 12:2) which was the official calendar for many years to come. (Article published by: Bethel Church Of God, Eugene, Oregon)

In summary to the above section, it is obvious from history that the early count and celebration of a seven-weeks calendar (as perhaps a non-abstract cycle) was practiced very early among Semite groups, and its celebration perhaps continued all the way into the Second Temple Era.

It is of some further interest that--in practice--a seven-weeks calendar requires a periodically celebrated single day (a jubilee or 50th day). History seems to indicate that this supreme festival day (the 50th day, or the jubilee day) was once celebrated--but not with the same solemnity (as were the weekly Sabbaths). As an example, Philo recorded a festival dance in association with the celebration of the 50th day. (For additional information, refer to the appendix).

Summary Notes For The Jubilee Cycle 

The Temple Era of Jewish history reveals the early adherence to a most remarkable time-tracking system. From the first-century sources, it is apparent that under the Second Temple time was tracked in accordance with complex time-interfaces of the Earth-Moon system (not through purely abstract counts of days and years). 

The outline of this early used hebdomadal system is summarized in the biblical description of the jubilee cycle: 

"And you shall number … seven times seven years … (the space of … forty-nine years) … and you shall hallow the fiftieth year, … A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be … ". (Leviticus Chapter 25:8-12.)

The structure of this remarkable jubilee cycle is completely comprised of seven-squared counts--where amid an outer circuit of seven-squared years an internal cycle of lunar-phases exists in perfect interface: 

       A Perpetual Count Of 49 Lunar Phases Across 49 Years *
       ___________________________________________________________

          Seven-Year Cycle 1   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
          Seven-Year Cycle 2   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
          Seven-Year Cycle 3   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
          Seven-Year Cycle 4   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
          Seven-Year Cycle 5   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
          Seven-Year Cycle 6   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
          Seven-Year Cycle 7   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  + 1
             Fiftieth Year     49
       ___________________________________________________________
  
        * -- One lunar-phase is extraneously counted each 3rd year.
       49 -- Indicates 49 lunar phases in each annual cycle.

This remarkable hebdomadal system achieves 365.24 days in the passage of each segment of seven-squared (or 49) lunar weeks, and this length precisely equals the passage of the annual solar cycle (also 365.24 days).

From Temple astronomy, it is easy to recognize that deliberate order does exist amid the apparent Earth-Moon system. Based upon records produced under the Second Temple, it can be understood that the motions of the lunar-solar system actually do exist in extremely precise interface with designed time-structures (in magnitudes of seven-squared). 

Of further significance surrounding the early use of a system of hebdomadal time counts is the internal structure of each annual cycle--which contains seven equally spaced segments:

       Seven Equal Time-Divisions In Each Annual Cycle * 
       _________________________________________________
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar weeks  (or phases) 
       _________________________________________________
       Total:  49 lunar weeks  (or phases) 
       * -- Interfaces with X1 and X2 (as documented).

Here, it is seems important to recognize that an astronomical count of seven-squared (or 49) days is inherent within these equal divisions of the annual cycle (where amid an ongoing count of 49 days the unique appearance of a 50^th day can be demonstrated to coincide--on the average--with one-seventh part of the annual circuit).

Also, amid this circuit of seven lunar-phases (in addition to the appearance of a unique 50^th day), the rate of one extraneous Earth's rotation can be interpreted to exist in correspondence to the passage of each lunar period. 

Then it is extremely significant that (internal to the jubilee structure) a continuous count of seven-squared (or 49) days is additionally apparent. This non-abstract count reveals two primary rates: a day rate which aligns with the Moon cycle, and a day rate which aligns with the Sun (or solar) cycle. 

The following chapter will demonstrate the large significance of the rate of one extraneous day each lunar cycle, and will show that this rate was fully integral in the early definition of the mainstream religious calendar.

It is evident from ancient literature that early astronomers in the region of the Middle East once adhered to a rather advanced time tracking system. The system was seemingly based upon a perpetually reoccurring cycle of seven-squared (or 49) lunar quarter-phases (plus the 'signs' as previously documented). This unending formal count resulted in a remarkably precise definition of the annual circle (or 365.2443 average days achieved by counted lunar phases. (This length compares very closely with 365.2422 days in the actual annual circle). 

It is additionally evident that a starkly formal interpretation of the reoccurring lunar cycle was perhaps also held during the Second-Temple Era. Literature from this period of ancient history surprisingly shows that the waxing and waning phases of the lunar cycle were once tracked using fixed counts of days and nights.

Day And Night, And Lunar Cycle Divisions

Certain of the Sea-Scrolls (presumably produced in and shortly before the First Century) rather graphically show that the specific division between day and night was integral in tracking the waxing and waning phases of the lunar cycle. This information implies that certain among the early Semite astronomers carefully accounted for two halves of the lunar cycle (both the new and the full phases), and at the peculiar resolution of either day or night. 

To demonstrate this early used method of tracking the lunar-cycle, a formal count of day, night, and lunar cycle divisions is seemingly alluded to on the Hymn Scroll as follows: 

Praises and prayers... from period to period: when the light comes from his residence; in the positions of the day, according to the regulation, in accordance with the laws of the great luminary [the Sun];... at the appointed moment of the night, in their station... in the positions of the stations in the commands of their signs... (20 [12]:4-9. Translation borrowed from Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls, Vanderkam, p.50).

Based upon the above quote--while it isn't possible to be too specific about this scrolls intended meaning--it seems of possible significance that 'positions of the stations' were once understood and used to track time with under the Second Temple. 

Evidence that the lunar cycle was once tracked (or mapped) from a specific phase in the lunar cycle (from either the full-phase or from the new-phase) can be recited from the early work of the recently deceased J.T. Milik:

Further study of the Mismarot from [Qumran] Cave IV... seems to favor the assumption... the beginning of their lunar month [was] from the full moon, not the new moon. Nevertheless, in one of their [Qumran's] synchronistic tables, in addition to the correspondence between the day of their solar calendar and the first day of their [Qumran's] lunar month they also note the day of the solar month on which the new moon falls; this correspondence is called 'dauqah' or 'duqyah', which in Rabbinic literature means 'precision (obtained by an observation)' the root 'dwq' meaning 'to examine, observe'. There also seems to be no doubt that they reckoned the day as starting with sunrise and not sunset. (Milik 1959: 152, n.5. Text borrowed from Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls, Vanderkam, p.60).

As the above quote illustrates, the lunar cycle was once counted from the time of the full moon (duqyah). At this particular epoch, the day is shown to start with sunrise (not at sunset). 

These two epochs (the middle of the lunar cycle--or duqyah--and the sunrise of the day) are of particular interest due to the fact that certain biblical passages indicate that the day should be counted from sunset (not counted from sunrise). In addition, the two epochs do not--at all--correspond with rabbinical tradition, which teaches that the lunar cycle should be counted from the time of the new moon (and not from the time of the full moon). The rabbinical interpretation also is that the day should unilaterally be counted from sundown (not from sunrise).

Here, it seems important to--at least--consider that a reckoning of the lunar cycle from the full-phase of the Moon (duqyah) does not have to mean that the entire lunar cycle was so accounted-for. Essentially, if only one-half of the lunar cycle (in the waning stages) was counted in terms of the day-unit-starting-with-sunrise, then it could also be that in the other half of the lunar cycle (in waxing stages), the day-unit was conversely counted from sunset. (For additional information, refer to the subsequent diagram).

Essentially, the scroll literature (as cited) can mean that the lunar cycle was once counted using two specific epochs (the new-phase and also the full-phase). If both the new-phase and the full-phase were epochs used in tracking the lunar cycle then it is entirely probable that the day-unit was counted from sunset throughout one-half of the lunar cycle (in the waxing stages); and following the full-phase (or duqyah) of the Moon, the day-unit was then counted in the reverse or from sunrise (through the waning stages). (Refer to the subsequent diagram for fuller detail).

A lunar accounting which involved both new and full phases seems much more probable in the context of certain other scrolls - such as Scroll 4Q317 (where the lunar cycle is shown to have been formally counted in half-cycles, or in separate divisions throughout waxing and waning stages). 

The early reckoning of the lunar half-cycle can well be recited from Talmon and Knohl, who--from a chronology of lunar-solar dates (as shown on Scroll 4Q321)-- identified a lunar-cycle pattern which contained a periodic day termed X. Essentially, amid a string of dates as shown on this scroll, the implied notation of a periodic X date appears (in addition and opposite to a periodic 'duqah' interval). 

The two lunar-cycle time-intervals: 1. A periodic time interval termed X; and 2. A periodic time interval which corresponded with duqah is described by James C. Vanderkam as follows:

While much of what is recorded in a text such as 4Q321 is by now familiar, the meaning of the term duqah (dwqh) remains the subject of a dispute. For Talmon and Knohl it was the designation of the day in the middle of the lunar month that is preceded by the night in which the full moon begins to wane, and X as the day at the end of the lunar month that follows upon the night in which the moon is in full darkness" (Talmon and Knohl 1995: 297). That is, the mystery day X is before the new moon and duq occurs just after the full moon. The two items, X and the one designated duqa (dwqh) or duqo (dwqw; that is, the noun dwq with a suffix), appear at fixed intervals: X comes thirteen days after duq or precedes duq by sixteen or seventeen days. In contrast to Talmon and Knohl, Wacholder and Abegg construe the X date as the full moon and duq as the new moon (Wacholder and Abegg 1991: 68 and Appendix C) and M. Wise has maintained that duq refers to the time when the moon is full, while X is the first day when the moon is invisible. A careful study of the evidence leads to the conclusion that the X date is probably the full moon and duq should be designated a time around the appearance of the lunar crescent; moreover, in this system, the full moon is the time when the month begins. Evidence for this conclusion comes from the etymology of the word duq which suggests the notion of careful observation. People who live with a lunar calendar observe carefully when the new moon can be sighted so that the number of days in the new month can begin. So, one would think that the word duq in 4Q319 would be more likely to have reference to the new moon than the full moon. It should be recalled that 4Q320 seemed to imply that the full moon was the beginning of the month. It may also be that a medieval source documents the existence of such a system that does not start the month with the lunar crescent but with the full moon. (Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls, Vanderkam, p.85-86).

It is then very evident from some of the early scroll literature (as cited) that the lunar cycle was once specially counted in two halves or in two distinct parts. One of these lunar-cycle halves is presumed to have extended up to the time of middle of the lunar cycle... at or around the time of the full moon (up to the time of duqyah), and the other half is presumed to have extended up to or the beginning of the lunar-cycle... at or around the time of the dark moon (up to the time termed X). 

It is pertinent to here note that the lunar-half-cycle (at times, or perhaps even at all times) may have actually been counted in correspondence with the first and the third quarter-phases. Essentially, the half-cycle count may not always have been (or perhaps never was) counted between the full and new-phases. This evidence of a half-cycle count (beginning at the first or third quarter-phase) can possibly be extracted from a few of the first through third century sources (primarily those which detail the early date of Passover/Easter). It may actually be that the special count of the lunar-half-cycle was, at times, oriented to the first or third quarter-phases, and then after the occurrence of a festival intermission, the half-cycle-count may have been reoriented to the new or full-phases. (Additional information is shown below).

A Formally Counted Lunar-Half-Cycle 

Some of the Second Temple literature explicitly shows just how the indicated lunar half-cycle was once formally counted. 

By connecting all the information, a better perspective of the duqyah interval and the date termed X becomes more apparent. The composite information seems to show that the half lunar-cycle was once reckoned through a fixed distribution (or a starkly formal count) of evenings and daylights. 

An example of counting the lunar-half-cycle according to a distribution of half-day-units can be recited from Scroll 4Q317 (as reconstructed by J. Milik). This Jewish document--which consists of almanac information--was probably originally written sometime during the Second Temple Era. 

This scroll shows a repeating 14 stage progression (from waning in 14 stages, to waxing in 14 stages, to waning in 14 stages, and so on). These specific 14 stages of the lunar cycle appear chronologically on the scroll. (A translation of this scroll's text is listed in the subsequent section).

An analysis of Scroll 4Q317--as cited--proves it to be an extremely intriguing interpretation of the lunar month cycle in that the lunar circuit is shown to possess exactly formal stages. 

This completely eye-opening interpretation shows the Moon to either enter the day by 14 increments, or to enter the night by 14 increments).

At the middle of the month a unique additional ½ stage is listed with the notation "The Moon rules all night in the sky on this evening". (This evening apparently corresponds to a half-day unit which extends from sundown to sunrise or to only the nighttime during which the full-phase of the Moon occurs--a time when the Moon is fully visible in the nighttime sky). It appears that this unique ½ stage interval is closely relative to the time of the duqyah interval (as previously cited).

For analysis purposes, the rate of the half-day interval which aligns with the full-phase of the Moon will hereafter be referred to as FM.

Again at new month a unique additional ½ stage stands out and is listed with the notation: "The Moon rules all the day in the sky on this day". (This 'day' apparently corresponds to a half-day unit which extends from sunrise to sundown or to only the daylight during which the new-phase of the Moon occurs--a time when the Moon is completely invisible in the night sky). It is evident that this unique ½ stage interval is closely relative to the time of X interval (as previously cited).

For analysis purposes, the rate of this half-day interval which aligns with the new-phase of the Moon will hereafter be referred to as NM.

From this ancient method of reversed month (or half-lunar-cycle) reckoning, it is ultimately elementary to very simply count a formalized sequence of evenings and daylights across 14 remarkable stages to the special evening of the full-phase of the Moon (which is apparently relative to the duqyah interval--as cited... perhaps as the day after). Following the evening of the full-phase of the Moon, a reversed sequence of daylights and evenings can be counted in 14 stages to the special daytime of the new-phase of Moon (which closely corresponds to the date termed X--as cited... perhaps as the day before). (For additional information, refer to the subsequent diagram).

The practice of counting half-month cycles appears in other Middle Easters literature (other than in the Sea Scrolls), This peculiar half-cycle count can be identified in earlier Babylonian records, where the "months were divided into halves, the middle of each month being characterized by a festival called 'isinnu (Sumerian 'ezen'). (Britannica, 1972: Calendar, Babylonian And Assyrian Calendars). (The specific reason for counting the lunar cycle in two half-parts seems to be relative to an early used method of lunar-cycle intercalation--as more fully detailed in Chapter Four).

From the composite information, it can be inferred that certain among the early astronomers of the Middle East once tracked the lunar-cycle, not in whole-day units, but rather through a sophisticated sequence of evenings and daylights (exactly as detailed on Scroll 4Q317). 

In summary to the above (and to subsequently presented information), the following diagram attempts to depict what must have been a rather popular, early used method of counting the lunar-cycle (a formal count across 14 stages of lunar waxing and 14 stages of lunar waning):

     A Formal Count Of Lunar-Stages (used during the Second Temple)
     _______________________________________________________________

     Week cycle 1 = 1st stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    2nd stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    3rd stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    4th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    5th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    6th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    7th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
     Week cycle 2 = 8th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    9th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   10th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   11th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   12th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   13th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   14th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
     Full Moon evening (½ stage)      *      (nighttime          )
     Week cycle 3 = 1st stage of Moon waning (daytime + nighttime)
                    2nd stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    3rd stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    4th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    5th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    6th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    7th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
     Week cycle 4 = 8th stage of Moon waning (daytime + nighttime)
                    9th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   10th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   11th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   12th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   13th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   14th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
      New Moon daylight (½ stage)    **      (daytime            ) 
     _______________________________________________________________
      * -- The Moon "rules all night… " on this evening (FM).
     ** -- The Moon "rules all the day… " on this day (NM).

It may be important to keep in mind that in actual practice, this formal count of the lunar cycle may (at times, or perhaps at all times) have been oriented to the first and last lunar-quarter phases of the Moon (rather than to the new and full phases).

The diagram--as primarily a composite of selected Sea Scroll information--suggests that the lunar cycle was once counted using fixed formal counts (always 14 stages of either waxing or waning). Amid the formal count, two weekly intervals seemingly occurred in advance of the evening of the whole Moon (a period of 1 evening which uniquely stood-apart from the waxing/waning stages). After the opposite, or reverse, of the lunar-month cycle occurred, then two additional weekly intervals occurred before the daylight of the dark Moon (a period of 1 daylight which also uniquely stood-apart from the waxing/waning stages).

Some of the literature produced under Second Temple indicates that the lunar-cycle was once formally counted in stages... in waxing and waning increments (as cited). This formal lunar-cycle accounting (of 28 total stages or stations per lunar month) ultimately tends to indicate the formal definition of a seven-day week-unit (in units of evenings and daylights). 

The definition of the lunar-based week (an interface with the lunar-cycle) was seemingly popular throughout the Middle East (especially in centuries prior to the First Century).

"The seven-day cycle... [appears] in Babylonian documents of the 7th century BCE. It is not quite yet the week as we know it, however. In origin, it seems to have been one fourth of the approximate time in a month the moon was visible. In short [the week] ... is not a continuous cycle." (A History Of The Western Calendar, K.T. Hagen).

Apparently, more than a single definition of the week was held throughout the Second-Temple Era. (For additional information concerning the early observance of a lunar-based week, refer to the appendix). 

The popularity of reckoning the lunar-cycle (by stages of waxing and waning) is further evident from others of the Sea Scrolls (which are conspicuous in the usage of no more than a fixed count of 28 days in each lunar cycle): 

"and in night 28 of this (month, the Moon) is covered by six sevenths and a half, and there is subtracted from its light [six sevenths and a half. And then it emerges (from the same door as before) and it shines during] the rest of this night with a half of a seventh (part). And it waxes during this day to its entirety. And then it sets and enters [the … gate and is covered during the rest of] this day in its entirety and all the rest of its light is removed and its disc emerges, devoid of all light, hidden by the s[un ….". (4Qenastr,Pls. XXV-XXX). 

"And in periods of seven days the moon undergoes its changes. In the first week she becomes half moon; in the second, full moon; and in the third, in her wane, again half moon; and in the fourth she disappears." (St. Clement of Alexandria [Second Century], The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 16).

Here it seems pertinent to further note that no mention of a 29th or a 30th day of the lunar cycle can be found throughout the entirety of the biblical texts. This same conformity is also evident throughout the writings of the Jewish priest-historian, Josephus--who lists no 29th or 30th day in reference to the Jewish Calendar. (In one instance, Josephus does--in fact-- describe an event which occurred upon the 29^th day of the month using the Macedonian Calendar).

The Orientation Of The Lunar Cycle

The formal lunar-half-cycle count (as cited in the previous section) was seemingly achieved by using a reversal of the day boundary (exactly as indicted by Scroll 4Q317). 

A reversal of the day boundary means that the day after FM was counted from sunrise, and the day after NM was counted from sunset. The change of the day boundary to sunrise (at the lunar half-cycle) is indicated to have occurred just after the nighttime of the full-phase of the Moon (as diagrammed above), and the change of the day boundary to the sunset is indicated to have occurred just after the daylight of the new-phase of the Moon (as also diagrammed above).

Some early literature seems to indicate that the formally counted lunar half-cycle was not always oriented toward the new and full phases of the lunar cycle, but rather show that the lunar-half-cycle was oriented--at least at times--to the first and third quarters of the lunar cycle.

A good example of the lunar half-cycle in peculiar orientation to the first and third quarter-phases can be recited from the The Paschal Canon Of Anatolius (3^rd Century). In the Fourth Chapter of this respective document, the work of a yet earlier Jewish or Christian astronomer, Aristobulus, is referenced: 

"For the feast of the Passover, it [is]... necessary not only that the sun should pass the equinoctial segment [the equinox when equal hours of light and darkness occur], but THE MOON ALSO [or the Moon must reach an equinox phase when its surface exhibits equal parts of light and darkness]. For as there are two equinoctial segments, the vernal and the autumnal, and these diametrically opposite to each other, and since the day of the Passover is fixed for the fourteenth day of the month, IN THE EVENING, the moon will have the position diametrically opposite the sun... the sun will thus be in the segment of the vernal equinox, and the moon necessarily will be AT THE AUTUMNAL EQUINOX [or, the Moon will specifically be at the last phase and exhibiting equal parts of light and dark]."

The above quote (attributed to an early astronomer, Aristobulus) has to herald from at least the Second Century (and probably originated from an earlier Jewish astronomer who lived sometime during the Hellenistic Period). This very early information seems to show that Second-Temple astronomers did in-fact once track the lunar period in half-cycles--where (in this cited instance) the half-cycle was quite oddly oriented from time of the first-quarter-phase). According to Aristobulus, the Moon's equinox phase (the 14th day in the evening) was equal to the last quarter-phase of the lunar cycle. (The respective count of the 14 days would then have commenced in correspondence with the first-quarter-phase of the lunar cycle). 

Another ancient example which indicates that the lunar cycle was once counted from the peculiar orientation of the first quarter-phase comes from the fifth tablet of the Semitic Story of the Creation, lines 12-18:

The moon he caused to shine, ruling the night: 
He set him then as a creature of the night, To make known the days.
Monthly unfailing, he provided him with a tiara.
At the beginning of the month then, appearing in the land,
The horns shine forth to make known the seasons.
On the seventh day the tiara perfecting.
A sa[bath] shalt thou then encounter, mid-[month]ly

Based upon Babylonian almanac and astrological records, it is apparent that the crescent shaped horns of the Moon were once observed as omens for the foretelling of future events. The time of the 'horns shining forth' (in the context of the cited tablet) has to equate to the time of the first-quarter-phase (when the luminance of the Moon exceeded the horns, and consequently, the Moon had progressed to the stage of no longer appearing as a crescent-shaped object). The time of the 'shining forth' beyond the 'horns' would--in-fact--seemingly equate to the very first-day past the time of the first-quarter-phase. 

The Semitic tablet (as cited) seems to depict the beginning of the count of the lunar cycle as coinciding with the time of the first-quarter-phase of the Moon. Apparently, the count of days commenced upon the day following the first-quarter phase and by the 7^th day the Moon had reached the full-phase (at mid-month), the time of the Sabbath.

A peculiar count of the lunar period (commencing with the first quarter-phase) can also possibly be extracted from the writings of the first-century historian, Josephus:

"… the people were come in great crowds to the feast [of unleavened bread]... on the EIGHTH DAY of the month Xanthicus [a whole lunar month]". (Wars, Book 5, Chapter 6:3)

According to extant biblical and associated historical information, Josephus' noted feast of unleavened bread should have exactly corresponded with the 15^th day of the lunar cycle. To the converse of this, the Josephus account (as cited) shows that the respective date-instead--occurred in reference to the 8^th day of the Macedonian lunar month (Xanthicus). This has to mean that the respective feast occurred in alignment with the 8^th day of the lunar period (or at the time of the first-quarter-phase of the Moon). Thus, it is ultimately somewhat surprising to discover that--in ancient applied practice--the orientation of the lunar-cycle may have been toward the first and to the third-quarter-phases of the Moon (and not necessarily to the new or full phases).

A specific count of 14 days in the lunar cycle (orientation unknown) can also be recited from the Elephantine Papyri (419/418 BCE) as follows:

To my brothers, Yedaniah and his colleagues of the Judahite garrison (from) your brother Haniah. May the gods seek the welfare of my brothers. Now this year, the 5th year of King Darius, word was sent from the king to Arsames, saying: In the month of Tybi [a month in the Egyptian Calendar], let there be a Passover for the Judahite garrison. Now accordingly count fourteen days of the month Nisan [a month in the Jewish Calendar] and keep the Passover, and from the 15th day to the 21st day of Nisan are seven days of Unleavend Bread. Be clean and take heed. Do not work on the 15th day and on the 21st day. Also, drink no intoxicants; and anything in which there is leaven, do not eat, from the 15th day from sunset until the 21st day of Nisan, seven days, let it not be seen among you; do not bring it into your houses, but seal it up during those days. Let this be done as King Darius commanded. To my brethren, Yedaniah and his colleagues of the Judahite garrison, (from) your brother Hananiah. (Translation adapted from Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C. Cowley 1923:44-45; The Elephantine Papyri in English Porten, Bezalel, et al. 1996:125-25).

From some of the literature produced in and near to the Second-Temple Era, it seems rather probable the lunar cycle was once counted in formal Sabbath divisions and also in formal New-Month divisions: 

[Peter] inferred thus: "Neither worship as [some] Jews… [for] if the moon be not visible, they do not hold the Sabbath, which is called the first; nor do they hold the new moon...." (Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 5).

"[Christian converts have their own part in observing]... an Holyday, ... the New Moon, ... [and] the 'Sabbatwn'…" (Colossians 2:16) 

"… let all the festivals and sabbaths and new Moons ….be days of exemption... " (1 Maccabes, Chapter 10:34); 

"… [Feasting] occurs at... 'Sabbatwn' (or on the Sabbaths), and at... 'noumhniwn' (or on the New Moons)…" (Judith 8:6). (For additional information, refer to Appendix A)

"[A Temple sacrifice is required] every day, at the beginning and at the ending of the day; but on the seventh day, which is called the Sabbath, [two are required]. At the new moon, [yet additional sacrifices are required]." (Antiquities Of The Jews, Josephus, Book 3, Chapter 10:1).

"The high priest [officiated]... on the seventh days and new moons... " (Wars Of The Jews, Josephus, Book 5, Chapter 5:7).

The second-century Christian author, Clement, explicitly stated that the 'Moon undergoes its changes' in periods of 7 days (where each passing week corresponds with beginning of the time of a lunar-quarter-phase):

And in periods of seven days the moon undergoes its changes. In the first week she becomes half moon; in the second, full moon; and in the third, in her wane, again half moon; and in the fourth she disappears.(St. Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 16).

In the above quote, it is apparent that Clement was concerned with 4 specific phases of the lunar cycle in correspondence with 4 week-units. (The cited order of the 4 lunar-phases may be unrelated to the orientation of the beginning day of the lunar cycle--in coincidence with one of the specific phase).

The lunar-half-cycle counts (between the above cited intervals of NM and FM) inherently defines 4 lunar-based weeks in each reoccurring lunar-cycle (as previously documented). Here, it is pertinent to note that Scroll 4Q317 (as also previously cited) additionally shows the occurrence of 'Echd BShbt' (or literally, the 'One of the Sabbath') in correspondence with the waxing and waning stages of the Moon:

[On the fourth of the month,] [eleve]n parts [are obscured. And thus the moon enters the day,] [On the f]ifth of the month [tw]elve [parts are obscured,] And thus [the moon enters the day. On the sixth of the month thir[teen] parts are obscured. [And thus the moon enters the day.] On the seven of the month, [fourteen parts are obscur[ed, And thus] the moon enters the day. On the eighth of the month, the moon [rules all the day in the midst] of the sky, [fourteen and one-half parts being obscured. And when the sun sets,] its light [ceases] to be obscured, [and thus the moon begins to be revealed] on the first day of the week [(or 'Echd BShbt')] (the eighth of the month). [On the ninth of the month,] on[e] part [is revealed, And thus the moon enters the night.] On the tenth of the month, [two parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters] the night. On the ele[venth of the month, three parts are revealed.] And thus the moon enters the night. On the twelfth of the month, [four parts are revealed. And thus] the moon enters the night. On the t[hirteenth of the month,] five parts are revealed. And thus the moon enter[s the night.] On the fourteenth of the month, [six parts] are reveal[ed. And thus the moon enters the night.] [On the fi]fteenth [of the month, seven parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters] the night. On the s[ixteenth of the month,] eight [parts are revealed.] And thus [the moon enters the night.] [On the s]ev[en]teenth [of the month, nine parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters the night.] [On the eighteenth of the month, ten parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters the night.] On the ni[n]ete[enth of the month, eleven parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters the night.] On the twentieth [of the month, twelve parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters the night.] On the twenty-first of the month, [thirteen parts are revealed. And thus the moon enters the night.] On the twenty-second [of the month, the moon rules all the night in the midst of the sky,] fourt[een and one-half parts being revealed.] And when [the sun] sets, [its light ceases to be revealed,] and thus the moon begins to be [obscured on the first day of the week] [(or 'Echd BShbt')] [(the twenty-second of the month).] On the tw[enty-]third [of the month, one part is obscured. And thus the moon enters the day.] On the twenty-fourth [of the month, two parts are obscured. And thus the moon enters the day.] On the twnety-fifth [of the month, three parts are obscured. And thus the moon enters the day.] (Translation borrowed from: Dead Sea Scrolls, A New Translation, by Wise, Abegg, and Cook. P. 302-303).

This peculiar reoccurring date, the 'One to the Sabbath', is oddly shown to reappear in seeming correspondence to a span of time 14 ½ days in length (specifically in correspondence with the intervals of NM and FM). 

While it is clear from Scroll 4Q317 that the intervals of NM and FM refer to two lunar-quarter phases (spaced at opposite halves of the lunar cycle, and thus spaced 14 and ½ days apart), it isn't fully or exactly clear--from the cited scroll--whether the 'One to the Sabbath' should refer to the first-phase (or first quarter) and to the third-phase (or third quarter), or to the new-phase and to the full-phase. Essentially, the moon (of perceptually 29 total parts) could commence 'entering the day' after the third quarter (14 ½ parts revealed) and it could begin 'entering the night' after the first quarter (14 ½ parts obscured), etc., etc..

The early understanding of the term 'One to the Sabbath' (as shown on Scroll 4Q317) can hardly have been that of the first day of the literal seven-day week. Instead, the reoccurring date 'One to the Sabbath', spaced at 14 ½ day intervals, is indicated to distinctly pertain to the two nodes of the lunar-half-cycle (similar to the above shown diagram). 

Exactly, why the lunar count may have once been reckoned from the time of the first-quarter phase is a bit of a mystery. It is possible that because the first and third-quarter-phases of the Moon always occur at times when the crescent shape of the Moon is completely filled out (a time when the lunar surface is exactly one-half illuminated) then these two specific phases of the lunar cycle are very distinct and are very easy to recognize. It may also be that the respective beginning orientation in counting the lunar-half-cycle was seasonal. Essentially, this beginning orientation in counting the lunar cycle (from the time of the quarter phases) may have been significant only relative to certain seasons of the year. Perhaps in other seasons, the lunar-count was oriented differently. For additional information concerning a seasonal count of lunar phases refer to the Chapter Four.

In summary to all of the above, Second-Temple literature explicitly shows that a periodic reversal of the day boundary was once used to track the lunar cycle. This peculiar reversal specifically occurred at the lunar-half-cycle between the nodes of NM and FM. It is ultimately less clear when/whether the nodes of NM and FM occurred in orientation with the new phase and the full phase of the Moon, or when/whether these half-cycle boundaries occurred in orientation with the first quarter-phase and the third quarter-phase of the Moon. (Additional information on counting between these two nodes is shown in the subsequent chapter).

As information in the upcoming two chapters will attempt to make plain, there seems to be an exceedingly remarkable reason why some of the early astronomers of the Middle East once tracked the lunar-cycle in two distinct divisions.

It is ultimately very evident that two lunar-based weeks are defined between the intervals of NM and FM. It is additionally evident that two lunar-based weeks are defined between the intervals of FM and NM. Thus, it is somewhat clear that early astronomers determined a count of exactly 4 weeks in correspondence with each reoccurring lunar cycle. In any and all cases of the lunar-quarter-cycle orientation, these formally defined weeks would have remained (or reoccurred) in exact correspondence with each quarter-phase of the Moon. 

Other Semite cultures (those who flourished in a period of ancient history even prior to the beginning of the Second Temple) are indicated to have also once employed a calendar which specially counted the lunar-half-cycle. This half-cycle accounting can be found in early Mesopotamian records, where the Babylonian " months were divided into halves, the middle of each month being characterized by a festival called 'isinnu (Sumerian 'ezen'). Certain days, in particular the 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th of each month, were considered ominous days, the numbers divisible by seven, on which people were to refrain from certain activities, seems to have led to the institution of the seven-day week as a time unit." (Britannica, 1972: Calendar, Babylonian And Assyrian Calendars).

Here, it is pertinent to note that the Second-Temple Calendar mirrors the earlier used Babylonian Calendar in a number of significant respects. The similarity between the two calendars was largely the result of the subjugation of the Jews under the Chaldean Empire, especially during the reign of the biblical King Nebuchadnezzar (who destroyed the first Jewish Temple). Thus, the Jews ultimately adopted the same lunar-calendar as used by the Neo-Babylonians. A form of this same lunar calendar has continued in constant usage among the Jews (even throughout all the centuries which have transpired after the fall of the Second Temple). The present-day Jewish Calendar still retains the original month names as those contained in the ancient Babylonian Calendar. (Here it may be important to keep in mind that a seemingly different method of lunar-cycle intercalation--a count of lunar-half-cycles--may have been used under the Second Temple--as more fully documented in the subsequent chapter).

An Ongoing Count Of Lunar-Weeks

As cited in sections above, a formal count of the lunar cycle is alluded to in certain Second Temple literature--where an indicated count of the lunar cycle is shown to progress in fixed segments of 7 + 7 + ½ + 7 + 7 + ½ days (refer to the previous diagram). 

The formal 28-stage or 28-station count (which included two one-half day units) would have encompassed 29 total days. 

Here, it is pertinent to show that a lunar-cycle count of 4 weeks (which extends across 29 total days) ultimately relates to the annual solar cycle (where, as previously described, the pentecontad cycle, or an ongoing count of seven-weeks, very nicely interfaces with one-seventh part of the annual circle).

To demonstrate that an interesting relationship exists between the lunar-cycle and a formal count of 7 weeks (across one-seventh-part of the annual-circle), it is evident that the lunar-cycle length of 29 days if divided into equal segments contains 4 segments of 7.25 days each. 

Thus, the formal count of 7.25 days (or approximately one-fourth part of the lunar cycle) times out at a faster rate than the actual quarter-cycle of the Moon (or 7.38 days). If the faster rate of 7.25 days is slowed down by the rate of 1 additional Pentecost Day at the rate of each seventh week then the average length of the formally counted week becomes equal to 7.39 days. 

Note that 7 weeks (of 7.25 average days in each week) equals 50.75 days, and 50.75 days plus 1 additional day is equal to 51.75 days. Then 51.75 days divided by 7 is equal to 7.39286 days. This length (7.39286 days) then represents the average length of one week (as achieved by counting the Pentecost cycle using lunar-based weeks).

This indicated interface between the pentecontad week and the quarter-phase of the Moon seems to spell out a logical reason for the once counted Pentecost cycle. Essentially, an ongoing count of Pentecost (or one additional day each 7 weeks) very nicely aligns the 7-day week into precise boundary with the lunar cycle (by one-fourth part). The ongoing count also seems to align the boundary of each seventh week with the annual solar circle (by one-seventh part). 

Thus, it is probable that the once used count of 50 whole-days did also include the additional half-day rates of both NM and FM. This means that the count of Pentecost (while it did comprise a count of 50 whole days) was actually a bit longer than 50 literal days (as each reoccurring count of 50 whole-days would inherently have traversed either 1 NM-unit and 2 FM-units, or sometimes would have traversed 2 NM-units and 1 FM unit, or sometimes would have traversed 2 NM-units and 2 FM-units).

It is ultimately somewhat surprising to discover that the length of seven Pentecost cycles (or 49) full weeks of 7.39286 average days in each week (as achieved through the additional counts of NM and FM) can very precisely interface with the length of seven-times-seven (or 49) lunar quarter-phases (over average time).

This amazingly perfect interface (49 weeks in interface with 49 lunar-phases) can be expressed using the following mathematical formula:

49 'full' weeks minus 0.5 day is equal to 49 lunar-phases

Note that 49 'full' weeks (or 49 times 7.39286 days) is equal to 362.25 days (over average time). Then, 362.25 days minus 0.5 day is equal to 361.75 days. This average length is remarkably comprised of rates of either whole-day, or half-day, units, and is almost exactly equal to 49 lunar quarter-phases (which have a length equal to 361.74973 days). The net difference between the cited average day rate (of 49 'full' weeks) and the cited lunar cycle rate (of 49 phases) is a minute amount of only 0.00027 days (an almost perfect interface).

Here, it is literally astounding to discover that the lunar cycle can perfectly interface (over average time) with a formal count of seven weeks--and amazingly so--at the 0.5 day boundary (which logically occurs between daytime and nighttime, or between the reverse). 

Thus, it is fully remarkable (as explicitly and implicitly indicated from a number of Second Temple sources) that the daytime and the nighttime boundary may have been used in the definition of fixed, formal seven-weeks counts. The ongoing seven-weeks count (as a lunar-based count) may have ultimately been used to define the precise length of the lunar quarter-phase (or 7.38265 days). This possibility is exceedingly significant in the regard that the lunar quarter-phase is indicated to have once been used in an internal count of the jubilee cycle (as documented in Chapter One).

An Astronomical Cycle Of Fourteen Phases

The peculiar subdivision of the lunar-cycle--by formal distances of 14 days of waxing followed by 14 days of waning (as cited above)--is of additional interest in the regard that a remarkable interface of 14-squared lunar quarter-phases can directly be identified based upon a conjunction of the Moon with the rate of the rotation of the Earth.

This conjunction arrives upon a perpetual count of 14-squared phases (or 14-times-14 phases) when the rate of the rotation of the Earth precisely aligns at an interface of one whole-day. Essentially, 14 phases times 14 phases are equal to a whole number of days (or 1447 of Earth's rotations). 

This inexplicable whole-day (or day and night) alignment at 1447 of Earth's rotations is also the same as seven-squared lunar periods, or 49 lunar cycles (as previously cited). For additional information, refer to: A Case For Created Time.

An Indicated Lunar-Based Pentecontad Cycle

Based upon information of a once used count of waxing and waning halves of each lunar cycle (as documented above), it is ultimately logical to believe the week-unit--used to determine the reoccurring pentecontad cycle--was probably lunar-based!

One of the more compelling of the arguments to substantiate the possibility that the early used pentecontad count was a lunar-based count comes from the fact that the surplus rates of NM and FM (when added to the count of 50 days) expands or enlarges the length of the pentecontad span. The resulting length of 50 days (made fuller by the rates of NM and FM) then becomes closely equal to the length of 7 lunar phases (51.75 days versus 51.68 days).

Ultimately, 7 enlarged weeks , or 7 'full' weeks, minus 0.5 day (or minus 1 NM interval, or 1 FM interval) is quite perfectly equal to the length of 49 lunar-phases (where both determinations are 361.75 average days). The respective length of 49 lunar-phases (in average time) is of great significance in the context of a wider count of jubilee years).

It then seems probable that a determination of the pentecontad may have been performed by early priest-astronomers through a unique count of lunar-based-weeks. The lunar week used in this indicated count (over average time) would have precisely been equal to the length of the quarter division of the lunar cycle (or the length of the lunar phase).

Based upon the mathematical requirements of an astronomical count of lunar weeks (or a progression of weeks always in interface with the quarter-phases of the Moon), it's easy to recognize a reason for the unique appearance of a singular or One date. This special reoccurring day--also called a 50^th, or an 8^th day, or the 'atsrah' (which means completion in Hebrew)--would formally have appeared amid the 'full' count of each seventh lunar week. 

A specially celebrated One Day in association with Pentecost is verifiable in Christian history (as more fully detailed in the appendix). 

The Stromata (Second Century) seems to show the explicit early (Christian) commemoration of a Great Day (or Eighth Day) as follows: [Peter] inferred thus: "Neither worship as [some] Jews… [for] if the moon be not visible, they do not hold the Sabbath, which is called the First; nor do they hold the New Moon, nor … the Great Day." (Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 5). (This date: the Great Day (which presumably appeared as an Eighth Day each seventh lunar-week) is indicated to very much be relative to lunar-cycle timing rates--as further detailed in the appendix).

Here, it is fully remarkable that even the very boundary of daylight and evening (or of evening and daytime) may have been significant in the Temple's definition of the lunar month cycle (and even of the annual solar-circuit).

It seems significant that the boundary of daylight and evening is necessary for resolving the length of 49 'full' weeks with the length of 49 phases (as documented above). Through a formal count of 0.5 day units it is possible (through average time) to interface the length of the 'full' week perpetually with the length of the lunar phase (at a seven-squared count of 49). The length of 49 'full' weeks (compensated for 0.50000 day, or 1 FM or 1 NM interval) is almost exactly equal to the length of 49 lunar phases (to within a minute difference of only 0.00027 days). 

Here, it seems pertinent to further consider that the modern rate of the apparent lunar cycle is 29.53059 days. Due to the rate of the slowing spin of the Earth, the apparent lunar cycle of only a few thousand years ago can be determined to have been 29.530612 days (as documented in Chapter Three of A Case For Created Time). At that previous time (when the apparent lunar cycle completed in 29.530612 days) then the indicated annual interface of 49 'full' weeks with 49 phases was exactly perfect! This past perfect interface then seems to remarkably indicate a possible point of origin for the current Earth-Moon orbital rates. This interface (which seems to require a formal count using half-days-units) seems to also indicate deliberate design in a progression of night and day intervals (or a formal distribution of 0.5 day-units). 

Early scroll literature implies that priest-astronomers once reckoned the remarkable boundary of either nighttime or daytime in fixed formal counts. This respective 0.5 day boundary was determined throughout reversals at the lunar half-cycle (and perhaps the 0.5 day-unit was even determined at the level of the annual circuit--as documented). The unique monthly (and possibly, annual) determination of the 0.5 day division ultimately seems to further indicate that the orbital rates of the Earth-Moon system may--after-all--be the result of a special creation.

The previous chapter has attempted to show how certain of the early astronomers once tracked the lunar cycle. It is apparent that a reoccurring count of daylight and evening was used to formally define two specific half-lunar-cycles. 

The current chapter will attempt to more fully show that this respective count of the half-lunar-cycle was performed for a functional purpose. It seems that the count of the half-cycle was fully necessary in the ultimate definition of a lunar-based calendar.

An Official Temple Calendar

The official calendar used under the Second Temple was almost undoubtedly based upon the lunar cycle. By the simplest definition, the annual cycle of this calendar was determined from a somewhat unique count of 12 lunar periods. 

Here, it is pertinent to point out that in this period of history, both a lunar and a solar calendar can be identified. 

The established Temple (which was followed by most mainstream Jews) is indicated to have used the reoccurring lunar-cycle as a means of computing an annual calendar. 

In somewhat contradiction to the calendar used by the priesthood, certain among the Jewish sects (notably the Essenes) used a solar calendar, of 30 or 31 days per month (and, in general, omitted usage of the lunar cycle). (For additional information, refer to Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls-Measuring Time, by Vanderkam).

The lunar-based calendar (as used at the Temple, and as observed by the mainstream Jews) minimally consisted of 12 lunar-cycles per year, where each of the 12 lunar cycles, or the 12 calendar months, were specifically named. 

It may be important to keep in mind that a similar calendar was used under the First Temple. The original calendar also contained 12 lunar months, but months in the original calendar may have only been numbered (or named differently).

The annual alignment of the Second-Temple's lunar calendar, and all 12 of the respective lunar-month names, can be determined from the historical record with a reasonable degree of certainty. This degree of certainty largely comes from the fact that the lunar-calendar used by the Neo-Babylonian Empire is indicated to have been almost identical to the lunar-calendar used under the Second Temple.

During the time of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (a period of ancient history when Southern Palestine was subjugated by the Babylonians) a calendar change is indicated in Southern Palestine. Ultimately, in the year 587 BCE, the First Temple at Jerusalem was pillaged and destroyed. After these events, it is logical to associate the ultimate adoption of the Babylonian Calendar (among the Jews) as beginning at about the time of the fall of the First-Temple. From this significant epoch in Jewish history (when the First Temple was overthrown), it is almost certainly apparent that at least a form of the Babylonian Calendar was adopted among the Jews. A version of the calendar used at Babylon was continued in usage under, and after, the Second Temple.

After the fall of the First Temple, a number of subsequently written biblical sources indicate that 6 of the 12 months (which defined the Second-Temple Calendar) have names which were identical to the calendar used in Babylonia. 

The 6 month names (which indicate the Second-Temple's usage of the Babylonian Calendar) can be recited from the following biblical texts:

• The name of the first month Nisan appears in the book of Esther (3:7), and also in the book of Nehemiah (2:1). 
• The name of the third month Sivan appears in the book of Esther (8:9). 
• The name of the sixth month Elul appears in the book of Nehemiah (6:15). The name of the ninth month Chislev appears in the book of Zechariah (7:1), and also in the book of Nehemiah (1:1). 
• The name of the tenth month Tebeth appears in the book of Esther (2:16). 
• The name of the eleventh month Shebat appears in the book of Zechariah (1:7). 
• The name of the twelfth month Adar appears in the book of Esther (3:7, 13; 8:12; 9:1, 15 17 19, 21), and also in the book of Ezra (6:15). 

Twelve Lunar-Months

One of the earliest examples of Jewish usage of the Babylonian Calendar (external to biblical texts) can be recognized from the so-called Elephantine Papyri (literature which was produced on an island near the city of Syene in Upper Egypt). These documents all date from the late fifth century BCE.

B. Porten has recently surveyed all the relevant evidence from Egyptian Aramaic texts, whether from, or dealing with, Jews or related to people of another race. He organizes the dates in the documents into three categories: those with exclusively Egyptian dates; those with exclusively Babylonian dates; and those which have synchronized double (Babylonian and Egyptian) dates. He surveys twenty one texts with Egyptian dates alone. Among these are four letters that are written between Jews. The category of texts using Babylonian dates alone is smaller but again, in some cases they are employed by Jews. In these texts the month names Nisan, Sivan, Tammus, Marcheshvan, and Tebet appear. The double-date category is the largest (about thirty texts). In them the Babylonian date always comes first, and all the Babylonian month names occur except Tebet. Porten concludes from the data that "there is no evidence for a Jewish calendar at Elephantine as distinct from the Babylonian calendar" (Porten 1990: 32). (Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls--Measuring Time, Vanderkam, P. 15).

Another group of papyri were discovered in a cave in the Wadi ed-Daliyeh in 1961. They date from the fourth century BCE (from the last period of Persian rule in Palestine). These Samarian documents are in poor condition, but even so, the Babylonian months of Tebet (papyrus 2) , Shebat (papyrus 6), and Adar (papyrus 1 and papyrus 7) are recognizable (or at least are partially recognizable).

The Jewish historian, Josephus, of the First Century, in a comprehensively written document entitled Antiquities Of The Jews referenced a total of 7 of the 12 Jewish months names (as once used in the Second-Temple Calendar). (Josephus additionally referenced all 12 of the month names used in the Macedonian Calendar, and this cross-reference helps to verify the chronological and astrological order of the 12 months in the Second-Temple Calendar).

From Antiquities it is no surprise that 7 of the 12 month names used in the Second-Temple Calendar (as per Josephus) were the same (or similar) to the month names used in the earlier Babylonian Calendar. The 7 respective month names referenced in Antiquities Of The Jews are as follows: 

• Nisan (Chapter 1, 3:3; Chapter 2, 14:6; Chapter 3, 8:4, 10:5; Chapter 6, 4:8), 
• Jur (Chapter 8, 3:1).
• Abba (Chapter 4, 4:7).
• Thisri (Chapter 8:4:1).
• Casleu (Chapter 12, 7:6) or Chasleu (Chapter 12, 5:4).
• Tebeth (Chapter 11,5:4). 
• Adar (Chapter 4, 8:49; Chapter 11, 4:7, 6:2, 12, 13). 

In Josephus' first-century account (which should directly reflect the still extant Second Temple), 7 of the 12 month names used in the then Jewish Calendar are about the same as those found in the Babylonian Calendar. It is somewhat puzzling that the month of Tebeth is listed by Josephus as the ninth month (refer to Antiquities Chapter 11, 5:4), whereas in the Babylonian Calendar (and also in later used Jewish Calendars) the month of Tebeth is consistently shown to be the tenth month?

"After the conquest of Jerusalem (587 BC), the Babylonians introduced their cyclic calendar... and the reckoning of their regnal years from Nisanu 1, about the spring equinox. The Jews... adopted the Babylonian month names, which they continue to use. From 587 BC until AD 70, the Jewish civil year was Babylonian, except for the period of Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies (332-200 BC), when the [autumnal orientation of the] Macedonian calendar was used." britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/printable/3/0,5722,108733,00.html

It is of some interest that Josephus does not attempt to explain the Babylonian origin of the Second Temple Calendar, but rather he states that it was under Moses that a major calendar change occurred:

"[The] second month, called by the Macedonians Dius, [is called] by the Hebrews Marchesuan [the eighth month, which is the second month after Tishri]: for so did they order their year in Egypt [the year beginning with the month Tishri]. But Moses appointed that · Nisan... should be the first month for their festivals, because he brought them out of Egypt in that month: so that this month [Nisan] began the year as to all the solemnities they observed to the honor of God, although he preserved the original order of the months [beginning with Tishri] as to selling and buying, and other ordinary affairs. (Antiquities Chapter 1, 3:3).

It then seems that the Hebrew adoption of the Babylonian Calendar, which probably took place during the time of the Neo-Babylonian Empire during the Sixth Century BCE, mainly involved only the names of the lunar months. The numerical order of the sacred year (with the first month oriented toward the vernal equinox) continued just the same as it was numerically ordered under the First Temple. Essentially, the two calendars may have been just about the same.

Under the Second Temple, the name of the first sacred month was called Nisan, while the actual civil year began 6 lunar months after the month of Nisan (at the beginning of the respective 7th lunar month now called Tishri).

"The Jerusalem Talmud preserves the memory that the exiles [who returned from the Babylonian captivity] brought these month names back with them upon their return from the east (Rosh Ha-Shanah 1,56d)". (Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls--Measuring Time, Vanderkam, P. 9).

The composite information (especially Antiquities) seems to indicate that the Jewish year was uniquely divided into two six-month intervals--where the first-half of the year spanned lunar months 1 to 6, and the second-half of the year spanned lunar months 7 to 12 (with the actual commencement of the new-year beginning with the 7^th month, or Tishri, as per Josephus). 

                The Probable Order And Month Names 
                   (used under the Second-Temple)
   -------------------------------------------------------------
                1. Nisan               7. Tishri
                2. Iyyar               8. Marcheshvan
                3. Sivan               9. Chislev
                4. Tammuz             10. Tebet *
                5. Ab                 11. Shebat
                6. Elul  +            12. Adar  ++
   -------------------------------------------------------------       
    + - Additional intercalation may have been performed at Elul.
   ++ - Intercalation was also probably performed at Adar.
    * - Antiquities (Chapter 11, 5:4) lists Tebet as the 9th month?

The subdivision of the annual cycle into two parts (of six months) can also be found in the early used Babylonian Calendar (as further explained below). 

A Unique Half-Year Cycle

Ultimately, it can be recognized that the Second Temple's calendar was based upon a lunar-model of the annual cycle. The lunar-calendar used was similar to the calendar of Babylon in that it consisted of 12 named months. 

Because the Second-Temple Calendar and the Babylonian Calendar appear to have a common origin, it isn't implausible to attempt to arrive at a better definition of the structure of the Babylonian Calendar (as a possible definition of the early Second-Temple Calendar).

In researching the calendars of Babylonia (and ultimately the calendar of the Second Temple), it is of vast interest that a unique lunar-based calendar of 12 named months was once used. One difference (which appears in an early calendar version) concerns a peculiar subdivision of the year. It seems that the early calendar was uniquely divided into two six-month segments as follows:

The earliest lunar calendar of southern Babylonia, was based upon the observation that a lunar eclipse occurs approximately once every six months... the appearance... [of the new moon]... marked the beginning of a new "year" that comprised approximately six months until the next eclipse. The early use of the "years" of six months, which was not limited to the moon worshipers of Babylonia, explains not only certain features of the later Babylonian calendar... but also may explain the superhuman length attributed by the Bible to the lives of certain personages... In the early historic period, the calendars in use in the various city-states of Babylonia comprised 12 lunar months... Intercalary months were the second Ululu [an intercalated period which followed the 6th month] and the second Adara [or an intercalated period which followed the 12th month],,, The habit of coupling either the sixth of the twelfth month for intercalation and the designation of the seventh month as Tashritu "beginning," bear witness to the relationship of this calendar to the archaic lunar calendar that had "years" comprising approximately six months. " (Britannica, 1972: Calendar, Babylonian And Assyrian Calendars). 

This rather ancient lunar calendar (which originally consisted of clearly defined six month intervals) was seemingly more prevalently used in centuries well before the Fourth Century BCE. 

It wasn't until the Fourth Century BCE that Babylonia began to compute their calendar of 12 lunar months in association with a 19 year interface:

[In the early Babylonian Calendar, the] intercalary month was inserted either after Ululu [the sixth month] or Addaru [the twelfth month], and it was simply called Second Ululu, or Second Addaru. There is some evidence that by the reign of Nabonassar (747 BCE) Babylonian astronomers had discovered the Metonic 19-year cycle, but until the 4th century BCE, there is no evidence that a 19-year cycle was used to assign fixed intercalary years within the cycle. In its fully developed form, years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, and 19 had a second Addaru, and year 17 had a second Ululu. (A History Of The Western Calendar, K.T. Hagen, For additional information, refer to ourworld.compuserve.com/homepage/khagen/Calhist.html).

The later version of the Babylonian Calendar (the one fully developed after the 4th century BCE) was based upon a 19-year cycle. (In this 19-year version, the years 1, 2, 4, 5,7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, and 18 are indicated to have contained 12 lunar-months, while the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are indicated to have contained an additional 13th lunar-month). 

In regard of the ultimate usage of a 19 year cycle, it must be kept in mind that when the Jews originally regrouped in Palestine from out of the Babylonian exile this was a time in history which must have predated the implementation of a 19 year cycle. This leads to the somewhat startling realization that the early Second Temple could hardly have used a 19-year cycle to intercalate the calendar. It is reasonably obvious that an earlier method of intercalation would have been used.

Thus, the earliest calendar (used in the Second Temple Era) would not have intercalated months in cycles of 19 years. Instead, it isn't unreasonable to believe that the early calendar of the Second-Temple might have intercalated lunar months according to the more ancient half-year-cycle (a popular method employed by the Babylonians, as cited above).

It seems of related significance that a specific count of six months (perhaps as an amount of cyclic time) is noted in the Book of Enoch as follows:"And the waning of the Moon which takes place … in the first portal in its season, till one hundred and seventy-seven days [or 6 lunar-months] are accomplished… She falls behind the Sun and the order of the stars... in the course of one period…" (Chapter 79).

It ultimately becomes reasonably clear from certain Babylonian records, that two intercalated periods were once used: 1. Sometimes an extended Elul (at the 6th month) was intercalated; and: 2. Sometimes an extended Adar (at the 12th month) was intercalated. 

The very early calendar of Babylonia (and ultimately the calendar of the Second Temple) would externally have been identical to a later-used lunar calendar (which employed whole-months and whole-years). In both calendars (the original and the latter) the names of the 12 months, and the order and orientation of the lunar months (between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes), remained basically unchanged. The biggest hint that a somewhat different calendar was originally in usage comes from an indicated change in the method of intercalation. It seems that the original calendar used intercalation at two specific epochs (both Elul and Adar).

These two epochs (Elul and Adar), spaced one-half-year apart, ultimately become rather significant in documenting a rather remarkable lunar-model of the annual cycle--as detailed in the subsequent section.

A Formal Rate Of Intercalation

The possibility that the early Second-Temple Calendar once employed periodic intercalation after the 6^th month, and after the 12^th month is intriguing in the regard that a perpetual rate of intercalation is indicated from these two epochs.

To make a clear demonstration (of this probable early used method of intercalation), let NEW_MOONS be equal to the length of 1 lunar-cycle, and let HLF_MOON be equal to an intercalary amount of 1 half-moon-cycle.

Using these assignments, it isn't difficult to show that a fixed rate of intercalation (the specific length of HLF_MOON) can be applied according to very uniformly spaced intervals of 18 NEW_MOONS. 

This uniform rate of intercalation can be expressed by using a mathematical formula as follows:

18 NEW_MOONS + HLF_MOON = 1.50001 solar years *

* - This remarkable fixed rate of lunar-cycle intercalation (or an intercalated HLF_MOON interval each 18 lunar-cycles) can be extended as an uninterrupted progression (and still retain satisfactory annual cycle alignment) as long as the rate of an additional HLF_MOON is intercalated amid a grid of '7- year-units'. (For additional information of this amazing jubilee interface, refer to the subsequent chapter). 

Thus, in interface with the jubilee cycle, it is evident that a fixed rate of intercalation is possible. Essentially, a perpetual count of 18 ½ moons is almost exactly equal to 1 ½ solar circles (if the count is applied across a stationary grid of '7-year-units' ).

Note that 18 NEW_MOONS + HLF_MOON is equal to 546,3161 days, while the additional rate of intercalation (as computed from the jubilee interface) is equal to 1.5504 days (at 1.5 years). Thus, the respective lunar-solar model achieves 547.866 average days in 1.5 calendar years (546.3161 days plus 1.5504 days is equal to 547.866 days). (Then, the resulting average calendar year of 365.2443 days compares very closely with the solar year of 365.2422 days). (For more information on the jubilee interface, refer to the subsequent chapter). 

It is important to here recognize that if the count of the first 6 NEW_MOONS began at the first calendar month Nisan, then after a count of 18 NEW_MOONS an intercalated HLF_MOON interval would have been inserted (after the month Elul, or the sixth month of the second year). Then, after a subsequent count 18 NEW_MOONS an intercalated HLF_MOON interval would again have been inserted (after the month Adar, or the twelfth month of the third year).

A LUNAR-SOLAR CALENDAR (equal to 3.0000 years) **

_______________________________________________________

6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS * 

6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS + _______________________________________________________

* -- Requires an intercalated HLF_MOON at the month Elul 

+ -- Requires an intercalated HLF MOON at the month Adar

** - Requires additional jubilee cycle intercalation (as cited).

It is obvious that an entire lunar-cycle could satisfactorily be intercalated after 36 moons (instead of intercalating a half-lunar-cycle at the rate each 18 moons). 

It is important to notice (as shown in the above diagram) that a lunar calendar (which employs a fixed rate of intercalation at Elul and at Adar) is rather perfectly equivalent to the length of 3 solar years. 

The subsequent chapter will attempt to more fully expose the significance of this respective lunar-solar calendar. The next chapter will also explore the possibility that the Second Temple may well have employed a very similar lunar-solar calendar. 

In exploring the definition of early lunar-based calendars of the Middle East, it is of interest to note that the ruler of Assyria cast lots ('puru') for the adding of his name to the calendar year. (This practice is recounted in the Book of Esther, which recorded that an officer of the King presided over the casting of lots in the first month (Hebrew - Nisan). The Jewish festival of Purim is related to this ancient custom of casting lots, in that the Jews succeeded in preempted slaughter at this time of year. Throughout the centuries, Purim has routinely been celebrated on Adar 14-15, a feast which occurs right at the half-lunar-cycle. 

The feast of Purim seems to uniquely occur in the very month of the year (Adar) when intercalation was once performed. In the 3^rd Century CE, "Mishnah Nedarim 8.5 refers to the added month and to the first Adar... the practice was to intercalate a second... Adar... which directly followed Adar--the twelfth month--and had the same name. This may not always have been the case or perhaps in some years exceptional circumstances dictated other measures. For example, a Baraita to Mishnah Pesahim 8.4 (= Babylonian Talmud Pesahim 56a) records among three actions by King Hezekiah... He intercalated Nisan with Nisan... Mishnah reflects the actual and regular practice of a second Adar only. So m. Megillah 1.4 says: If they had read the Scroll [of Esther] in First Adar, and the year was intercalated, they must read it again in the Second Adar... Eduyoth 7.7 conveys something of the timing of intercalary decisions and the identity of the authority who made them: They testified that the year could be declared a leap-year any time during Adar; whereas it had [originally] been taught: Only until Purim [in the middle of the lunar cycle]... the year could be declared a leap year... " . (Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls-Measuring Time, by Vanderkam, p. 38-39).

A Real-Time Calendar

After the fall of the Second Temple (which occurred in the later part of the First Century) it appears that a 12 month lunar calendar was observed in 'real-time' (at least on the part of some of the Jewish communities).

The 'real-time' schedule, as was seemingly used among Palestine Jews (perhaps primarily after the First Century), appears to have been based upon observation of the lunar cycle.

This somewhat informal method of time-tracking (which allegedly was used under the late Second-Temple) appears in the writings of Pharisee Jews (some of these writings were compiled in the early Third Century CE). 

Actual observation of the lunar cycle, in particular, was apparently more important than calculation. Essentially, the commencement of each lunar-month was not calculated ahead of time. Instead, the new-month began when the lunar crescent was actually sighted or directly observed by a reliable witness. (For additional information, refer to Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls-Measuring Time, by Vanderkam).

It additionally appears (from some of the Talmudic literature) that intercalation of an extra whole-month (a 13^th month) was also periodically used. The occasional year when this additional month should be intercalated was again informally determined based upon observation of the seasonal progression.

"After the destruction of the Temple in AD 70, rabbinic leaders took over from the priests the fixing of the religious calendar. Visual observation of the New Moon was supplemented and toward AD 200, in fact, supplanted by secret astronomical calculation. But the people of the Diaspora were often reluctant to wait for the arbitrary decision of the calendar makers in the Holy Land. Thus, in Syrian Antioch in AD 328-342, the Passover was always celebrated in (Julian) March, the month of the spring equinox, without regard to the Palestinian rules and rulings. To preserve the unity of Israel, the patriarch Hillel II, in 358/359, published the "secret" of calendar making, which essentially consisted of the use of the Babylonian 19-year cycle with some modifications required by the Jewish ritual. 

The application of these principles occasioned controversies as late as the 10th century AD. In the 8th century, the Karaites, following Muslim practice, returned to the actual observation of the crescent New Moon and of the stand of barley in Judaea. But some centuries later they also had to use a precalculated calendar. The Samaritans, likewise, used a computed calendar." (britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/printable/3/0,5722,108733,00.html).

Thus, in the late Second Temple (and for 3 centuries afterward) the Pharisees are indicated to have preferred a method of observation ahead of the use of a computed calendar. Later, (in and around the Fourth Century CE) rules for computing a calendar were followed. The rules of pre-calculation generally followed the 19 year cycle (as was originally employed in Babylonia in the Fourth Century BCE). 

According to Jewish records written in the 3^rd Century, the highest Jewish court (the Sanhedrim) is indicated to have relied heavily upon careful lunar-cycle observation in definition of the Jewish Calendar.

It appears that not all Jewish groups were in particular agreement about the significance the Pharisees placed upon an observed calendar (as well as many other topics) under the Second Temple. 

The religious sect, known as the Essenes, were at particular variance with the established priesthood (those who officiated at the Temple). Josephus implies that this group (the Essenes) even disassociated themselves from attending Temple services. The Essenes are indicated to have ultimately observed a solar calendar for religious purposes (a calendar of 12 months which contained 30 or 31 day months).

To the converse of a calendar which stressed observation (as possibly was practiced by the priesthood of the late Second Temple), the writings of the Essenes indicate that the rotation of the Temple Priests ought to progress according to an alleged computed calendar (where the duration of the offices of the priests was recorded upon "heavenly tablets"). 

Literature produced by early Christian historians and astronomers, some as early as the Third Century CE (notably Anatolius), rather clearly indicates the early usage of computed calendar tables, along with a precise method of predicting the reoccurring date of Passover. 

A disagreement between early Christians and Pharisee Jews (concerning the usage of observation ahead of computed calendar tablets) is seemingly mirrored by the early Christian writer, Clement of Alexandria (of the Second Century CE), as follows: 

[Peter] inferred thus: "Neither worship as [some] Jews… [for] if the moon be not visible, they do not hold the Sabbath, which is called the first; nor do they hold the new moon...." (Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 5).

It is evident from certain of the early literature (such as Scroll 4Q318) that the twelve signs of the zodiacal circle were used by Jewish astronomers. The Jewish priest-historian, Josephus made mention of the beginning of the Hebrew year as occurring at the time when the 'Sun is in Aries'. Knowledge of the zodiacal circle almost has to mean that accurate determination of the length of the annual circuit was within the ability of early Jewish astronomers.

An Applied Cycle Of Six-Months

The Second-Temple may have employed specific observation in tracking the monthly and annual cycles. It is most probable, however, that pre-computed calendar tables were also used (perhaps in conjunction with a supplemental method of observation).

It is more significant that the structure of a specific calendar was followed (whether by computation, by observation, or by some combination of methods). 

The structure of the official Second-Temple Calendar almost undoubtedly contained 12 lunar-months, and each of the 12 months were specifically named. 

Because 12 lunar months (of 354.4 days) were so counted, then an additional amount of intercalation would explicitly have been required).

It is reasonable to believe that the late Second-Temple still followed the version of an early calendar (which--as explained in previous sections--employed intercalation according to a formal count of 6-month intervals). 

In substantiation of this interpretation, sources in and around the time of the Second-Temple make no mention whatsoever of the usage of the 19 year-cycle (even though this cycle was in contemporary usage among the Greeks and also in Mesopotamia). 

To the somewhat converse of a count of 19 years, Sea Scroll literature, and the writings of Josephus explicitly refer to the count of a three-year cycle. 

From some of the early literature, it appears that even the rotation of the offices of the priests was probably performed according to the 'signs' of the three-year count. (Evidence that the courses of the priests were aligned according to a cycle of 3 years is shown on Scroll 4QOtot). 

An analysis of the courses of the priest-offices make it most likely that calendar intercalation was performed at 6 month boundaries (perhaps across a 3 year cycle, as previously cited). 

"... priests from the [24] groups served in a rotation at the temple, with one course officiating for a week, after which the next one in the list replaced it.... The historian Josephus mentions the twenty four priestly divisions or courses and adds: " he [= David] further arranged that one family should minister to God each week from Sabbath to Sabbath" (Antiquities 7:365=7:14:7).... Other sources verify that the change from one priestly group to the next took place on the sabbath, and the twenty four priestly courses are listed in several inscriptions that have turned up from time to time... The fact that each course served one week at a time and did so in a defined order (that of 1Chronicles 24:7-8) meant that the name of a priestly watch could be used as a way of designation a particular week. The traditional system also allowed one to refer to days within that seven-day span as day one, day two, etc. of priestly course X... It appears clear enough that the act of coordinating the periods of service for priestly divisions with the movements of the heavenly luminaries has a deep theological meaning...". (Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls-Measuring Time, by Vanderkam, p. 38-39).

If the priest groups rotated each lunar-week and there were 24 courses, then all courses would have rotated into office throughout each interval of 24 lunar-weeks (which is equal to a cycle of 6 months).

"The [Greek] civil year (etos) was similarly dissociated from the natural year (eniautos). It was the tenure term of an official or priest, roughly corresponding to the lunar year, or to six months..." (britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/3/0,5716,108733+7,00.html).

"The eniautos is not a whole circle or period but just the point at which the revolution is completed, the end of the old etos, the beginning of the new....the cardinal turning point of the year... Such a day to ancient thinking must be marked out by rites de passage, for the issues were perilous. Such rites de passage are those of Closing and Opening, of Going to sleep and Waking up again, of Death and Resurrection, of killing or carrying out the Old Year and bringing in the New. To such rites it was natural, nay, necessary, to summon the Kouros." (drugwar.com/mnemos.htm).

"... Caiaphas, being the high priest that same eniautou... " (John 11:49).

"... he... being high priest that eniautou... " (John 11:51).

"Caiaphas... was the high priest that same eniautou." (John 18:13).

"But into the [inner-Temple] went the high priest alone once every eniautou, ... " (Hebrews 9:7).

"... the high priest entereth into the holy place [of the Temple] every eniauton (Hebrews 9:25)

"... [Atonement] sacrifices [are]... offered [each eniauton]continually... Hebrews 10:1

Hebrews 10:3 ... [Atonement] sacrifices [are] made [for] sins every eniauton.

"Aristobulus... having been both king and high priest for three years and six months [was removed]." (Antiquities 14, 6:1).

"But the temple itself was built by the priests in a year and six months...They feasted and celebrated this rebuilding of the temple: and for the king... for at the same time with this celebration for the work about the temple fell also the day of the king's inauguration, which he kept of an old custom as a festival, and it now coincided with the other, which coincidence of them both made the festival most illustrious." (Antiquities 15, 11:6).

"the times of these high priests were four hundred and sixty-six years, six months, and ten days, " (Antiquities 20, 10:1).

"He also spoiled the temple, and put a stop to the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation for three years and six months." (Wars 1, 1:1).

"[The Temple] sanctuary made desolate for three years and six months." (Wars 5, 9:4).

It is of further interest that at the very beginning of the ministry of Jesus, the Book of Luke (Chapter 4:17-21) shows that this particular epoch in time was perhaps uniquely aligned along the boundary of a 3-year circuit (where the beginning year of the ministry was referred to as: "the acceptable eniauton"). 

For additional information on this topic, refer to the appendix.

The previous chapter has furnished detail of an early used lunar-based calendar. This lunar-solar calendar is indicated to have contained a reoccurring count of 12 lunar-months (while intercalation was performed in half-month intervals). 

The cited half-month was perpetually intercalated at 18 month intervals, or twice in each cycle of 3-years. 

                  A Perpetual 3-Year Calendar *
     _______________________________________________________________

               Year 1 :            12 lunar-cycles
               Year 2 :            12 lunar-cycles
               Year 3 :            12 lunar-cycles
     _______________________________________________________________

     *-Requires intercalation of 2 half-moon intervals each 3 years.
     Total lunar cycles = 37.0000.       Total years = 2.9915.

The use and significance of a specific 3-year cycle can perhaps be extracted from certain Second Temple literature which makes frequent reference to a peculiar 12-squared number, or specifically to the number 144. (Refer to the Book Of Revelation, Chapter 7:4; 14:1; 14:3; 21:17). A peculiar count of 144 lunar-weeks, or 144 lunar-quarter-phases, can be counted in each interval of 3-years (relative to 36 lunar cycles). 

The indicated 3-year interface (of both lunar and solar cycles) may ultimately point to the very reason of why certain early astronomers also counted a jubilee cycle (comprised of 7-year-units). 

To more fully expose this remarkable reason, notice carefully from the model (as diagrammed above) that 37 lunar cycles are equal to the length of 2.99 years. From this close alignment it is important to recognize that 37 lunar cycles aren't quite equal to the length of 3 actual annual cycles. Essentially, an additional amount of calendar intercalation is required in order to keep a reoccurring count of 12 lunar cycles into average alignment with each annual circle.

A Jubilee Cycle Of 50 Years

The application of a grid of 7-year-units (as an additional interface with a count of 37 lunar-cycles, as cited above) can produce an extremely accurate lunar calendar. 

In consideration of all of the indications and requirements necessary to apply a uniform rate of half-lunar-cycle intercalation, a grid of 7-year-units is indicated. This grid is shown in the subsequent diagram: 

A Perpetual Grid Of 7-Year-Units *

(required to precisely align 37 lunar-cycles with 3 solar years)

________________________________________________

' 7 ' + ' 7 ' +' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' JBLE ' = 1 map-cycle

_________________________________________________

* - Intercalation (or ' d ') is perpetually required between each two '7-year-units'.

Note: ' 7 ' is equal to a '7 year-unit', and ' d ' denotes a delimiter the length of the 'half-moon-cycle' (where ' d ' is perceptually equal to either the waxing-half-moon or the waning-half-moon). This respective rate of the delimiter ' d ' (the length of the half-moon-cycle) is perpetually required across the cited fixed-grid of '7-year-units'.

It must be further noted that ' d ' is indicated to ultimately coincide with a jubilee year (or a '50^th year) at 12-squared (or 144) jubilees (as further explained below).

The intercalated delimiter ' d ', the length of the half-moon-cycle (as diagrammed above), is periodically required in order to extend the boundary of 37 lunar-cycles into average alignment with the boundary of three solar years (as documented above). 

It is extremely remarkable that the required delimiter ' d ' also functionally divides, and defines, a grid of '7-year-units'.

Without the perpetual reoccurrence of this remarkable delimiter, a chain of 7-year-units would only represent an abstract count of the annual cycle. The lunar-phase delimiter (which appears in-between a formal count of lunar months) rather perfectly interfaces with a grid of 7-year-units. Thus, the interface of a fixed count of lunar-cycles ultimately defines the jubilee cycle to be a non-abstract, data structure. The definition of a functional grid of 7-year-units (as also a formal count of lunar-months) can easily be interpreted as evidence of a deliberately ordered lunar-solar system. 

The early use of a grid of 7-year-units can be recognized from numerous biblical sources (which--in over 40 instances--indicate the count of a 7-year-unit). In some instances this grid of 7-year-units is noted to terminate at a fiftieth year (called the jubilee): 

"And you shall number … seven times seven years … (the space of … forty-nine years) … and you shall hallow the fiftieth year, … A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be … ". (Leviticus Chapter 25:8-12.)

It is fully remarkable that even a seven-squared grid of 7-day-units is explicitly described in biblical texts: ".... count... seven sabbaths [or 7-times-7-weeks]... even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days... [and present a new offering] Chapter 23:10-23).

These explicit biblical references to seven-squared counts (of days and of years) are most unusual. The respective references become very remarkable in the above-cited regard that the counts were once seemingly used as a means of intercalating the early lunar-based calendar.

The indicated calendar is equivalent to a rather perfect lunar-solar interface. The inherent design, and the uniform rates of intercalation, tends to remove almost any doubt but that the seven-squared counts were used for the purposes of defining a lunar calendar. 

It is additionally remarkable that the intercalation rate, as is required in a grid of 7-year-units, is likewise required throughout a synonymous grid of 7-day-units. 

A Perpetual Grid Of 7-Day-Units *

(required to perpetually align the whole-day-unit with the lunar cycle)

________________________________________________

' 7 ' + ' 7 ' +' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' 50th' = 1 map-cycle

_________________________________________________

* - Intercalation (or ' d ') is perpetually required between each two '7-day-units'.

Note: ' 7 ' is equal to a '7-day-unit', and ' d ' denotes a 'half-day' delimiter (which can be either the daytime-unit or the nighttime-unit). The delimiter ' d ' seems to functionally divide the lunar-month into two halves. Prior to the intercalation of ' d ' the lunar-cycle can be perceived to be in the waxing half, and after the intercalation of ' d ' the lunar-cycle can be perceived to be in the waning half, and so-on . This respective rate of the delimiter ' d ' (the length of the half-day-unit) is perpetually required across the cited fixed grid of '7-day-units'. (For additional information concerning formal intercalation of whole-day-units across the reoccurring lunar-cycle, refer to Chapter Three).

It must be further noted that ' d ' is indicated to ultimately coincide with a jubilee day (the '50^th' day) at 7-squared (or 49) weeks (as further explained in Chapter Three). 

The duplicate rate of intercalation (as mapped above) amazingly reveals that a uniform grid of 7-day-units, and also a same uniform grid of 7-year-units, exists in perpetual interface with designed progressions of day-units, lunar phase-units, and units of the annual circle. 

It is very remarkable that a common grid of seven-squared applies across 7-day-units, and likewise across 7-year-units.

Essentially, the seven-squared year-grid which ultimately interfaces with the reoccurring half-moon-unit (at ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' d ') is very synonymous with a seven-squared day-grid which ultimately interfaces with a reoccurring half-day-unit (at ' 7 ' + ' 7 ' + ' d '). 

The 7-day-unit in one map application is equivalent to the 7-year-unit in a second map application. The delimiter of nighttime or daytime (or ' d ') in one map application is equivalent to the delimiter of waxing-half-moon or the waning-half-moon (or ' d ') in a second map application.

Cycles of 7-day-units and 7-year-units, are very uniquely defined by the combined orbital rates of the Earth-Moon system. The indicated time-cycles encompass a peculiar characteristic of seven-squared design (and this characteristic additionally seems to carry a more subtle attribute of logic). Essentially, seven-squared time-structures (as defined) are more than simple go and stop, or start and finish, sequences. Rather, the defined time-cycles very uniquely encompass the additional domains of light and dark (day or night, waxing-moon or waning-moon, summer or winter).

It is of vast interest that the above cited perpetual rates of intercalation additionally define either a jubilee day, or a jubilee year, and at the interval of 7 times the 7-day-unit, or 7 times the 7-year-units. (For additional information of the jubilee day, refer to Chapters Two and Three). 

When exploring the application of these reoccurring map cycles, it is important to recognize that the overall goal of using the fixed counts (on the low-end) is that each segment of 12 lunar months will perpetually interface with the annual circle (throughout average time). 

It is very significant that the average length of 12 lunar months (plus the cited rates of half-moon intercalation) is ultimately equal to 365.2443 days, and this length is very close to the actual length of the solar year (which is 365.2422 days).

Note that the length of 12 lunar-months is equal to the 354.36708 days. Then, the intercalated rate of 2 additional half-moon cycles in 3 years is equal to 9.84353 additional days per year. The intercalated rate of 7 half-moon cycles in 100 years (which is the same as that accrued through a grid-count of 7-year-units as mapped-out above) is equal to 1.03357 days per year. Thus, the length of the average year (adjusted for intercalation, as cited above) is ultimately equal to 354.36708 + 9.84353 + 1.03357 days, or 365.244 days. 

The remarkable logic and design inherent in the use of fixed counts of half-days, whole-days, half-lunar-cycles, whole-lunar-cycles, half-years, and whole-years seems to--at-least--reflect ultimate genius on the part of the early Semite astronomers.

The Great Year

Additional definition of the Second Temple Calendar was seemingly known by the Jewish priest-historian, Josephus, who wrote: 

"… the great year is completed in that interval [600 years]" (Antiquities 1:3:9). 

This statement is remarkable in the regard that a cycle of lunar phases (as detailed above) when extended across a long-cycle of 12 jubilee circuits (or 600 years) first arrives at full closure at this respective interval. 

Closure occurs because the two rates of intercalation ultimately time-out together at 600 years. Essentially, the jubilee cycle and the perpetual 3-year cycle coincide together at each 150 year interval, and also the jubilee cycle times-out with the above-cited 7-year rate of intercalation at 200 years. All three cycles ultimately coincide together at 600 years. 

          A Great Cycle Of 600 Years, or 12 Jubilee Cycles
    _________________________________________________________
       Cycle 1 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 2 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 3 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 4 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 5 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 6 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 7 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 8 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
       Cycle 9 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
      Cycle 10 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
      Cycle 11 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
      Cycle 12 :   7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 1 = (50 years)
    _________________________________________________________

7 - denotes a '7-year-unit'. 1- denotes a stand-apart 'jubilee year'.

Each 600-year cycle contains 200 three-year cycles.

Each 600-year cycle contains 12 jubilee years and 84 '7-year-units'.

Each cycle-of-50-years is equal to a 'count' of 600 'whole-moon-units'.

Intercalation of a half-moon-unit is perpetually required between each two '7-year-units'.

Intercalation of a half-moon-unit is perpetually required twice in each 3-year cycle.

Note that intercalated half-moon-units (when they occur) are 'not counted'.

This great-year cycle (as mentioned by Josephus in the First Century) seems to additionally verify that Second-Temple astronomers might have been using the jubilee cycle to intercalate a lunar-based calendar (perhaps similar to the count distribution shown on Scroll 4QOtot).

The respective 600-year tally of the jubilee count seems to also indicate that early Israelite priests might have been in possession of formal calendar tables. 

A great-year cycle (of 12 jubilees) would have been remarkably easy to compute based upon a count of the endless three-year cycle. Throughout this count, the placement of each lunar-year (of 6-whole-moon-units) could hardly have been mistaken (especially in a calendar defined by fixed counts).

The indicated great-year-as documented above--contains 600 solar years (or 1200 lunar years). The cycle is comprised of 7200 'whole-moon-units' plus 442 'half-moon-units' (or 7421 total lunar-cycles). Thus the length of the great-year is equal to 219,146.508 days. This compares closely with the alignment of the actual annual solar-circle (which equals the length of 219,145.320 days in a 600 year cycle). 

It is pertinent to note that the cited 600-year lunar/solar alignment (based upon perpetually fixed counts) is extremely close. Additional calendar correction would not be warranted until a difference of a half-moon-unit occurred between the above-cited calendar and a fixed point in the annual circle. This difference would require about 7200 years to accrue to the cited difference of the half-moon-unit. Thus, for all practical purposes, the respective Jubilee Calendar has remained valid (and has required no additional correction)--even for the duration of all of recorded human history. At somewhere along the timeline--about 7200 calendar years (or at 144 jubilees)--the calendar would ultimately need to omit the count of a half-moon-unit. Thus, the indicated Jubilee Calendar (as cited) is accurate enough to use for kingdom or era dating. (This is due to the unique limits of the lunar calendar's very great accuracy). 

Implementing The Jubilee Calendar 

The Jubilee Calendar must have presented the early user with an easy to use time-tracking system that was inherently very precise. 

The early astronomer would only have needed to track each reoccurring cycle of 6 lunar months. The fact that lunar months in the early calendar are indicated to have been numbered (and, later-on, named) must have made precise computation of the length of the annual cycle almost elementary.

One of the facets required in the implementation of the cited fixed jubilee counts would have been the necessity to differentiate between the unit of the whole-lunar-cycle (which always was counted), and the unit of the half-lunar-cycle (which was never counted). 

To more clearly demonstrate the cited requirement of either counting or non-counting, let WHOLE_MOON be equal to the unit of the whole-lunar-cycle. Also let HALF_MOON be equal to the unit of the half-lunar-cycle.

Then, if WHOLE_MOON is always counted, while HALF_MOON (an intercalated amount) is never counted, the following list of calendar definitions become perfectly valid:

- Each annual circle is equal (over average time) to a 'count' of 12 WHOLE_MOONs.

- Each 'seven-year-unit' is equal (over average time) to a 'count' of 84 WHOLE_MOONs.

- Each cycle-of-50-years is equal (over average time) to a 'count' of 600 WHOLE_MOONs.

- Each great-year cycle of 600 years is equal to a 'count' of 7200 WHOLE_MOONs.

The underlying simplicity, and the ultimate genius, behind the cited calendar system resides in the employment of a fixed intercalated rate of HALF_MOON (a uniformly reoccurring time-unit which simply was not counted).

[Using the same analysis, each lunar-month cycle is equal to a 'count' of 28 whole-day-units, and each pentecontad cycle would be equal to a 'count' of 50 whole-day-units.]

The Modern Jubilee Cycle

To substantiate from history that a specific count of the jubilee cycle was once in use under the Second Temple, the Bible Book of Ezekiel can perhaps be recited. 

This document also seems to provide significant information necessary for projecting the ancient Temple Calendar into this modern era,

The Book of Ezekiel was seemingly written under the very-late First-Temple, presumably by a prophet-priest. 

This document is significant because it contains a somewhat ordered list of 13 different calendar dates. The ancient dates extend in a suggested chronological sequence across a time-interval which encompasses about 21 years. 

One of the listed year dates (as recorded in Ezekiel, Chapter 29:1) may refer to a jubilee intermission interval (perhaps a 50^th year, or perhaps to one of the intercalated intervals). The year date ('ashyryt', or 'asarat') as used in the cited passage appears to be a form of the word ten. This form of ten appears nowhere else in the original Hebrew text (in reference to a date). 

A possible link between the year-date 'ashyryt' (of Ezekiel, Chapter 29:1) and the occurrence of a 50^th year shows up in a similar Hebrew word which is sometimes used in reference to the 50^th day ('atzeret', or 'atzrah', a word which signifies completion). 

By making a logical connection between an 'ashyryt' year and an 'atzeret' day (which signifies the completion of a time-cycle), then it is seemingly apparent that a count of the jubilee cycle was being performed on the part of priest-astronomers during the time of Ezekiel.

The location of a historic jubilee year (as is perhaps evident from Ezekiel, Chapter 29:1) is ultimately necessary for reconstructing the chronology of the ancient calendar.

The cited year-date (as found in Chapter 29:1) might have been equivalent to the year 588 or 587 BCE. (For additional information, refer to T.S.K., or to an equivalent Bible commentary).

Thus, the respective year-date (588, or 577 BCE) may actually have been equivalent to a jubilee year. 

If the jubilee cycle (as possibly noted by Ezekiel) is equated to modern-era dating, then the upcoming jubilee year (as a projection of the original Temple Calendar) should occur in approximately the year 2012 or 2013 CE. This indicates that an interval of almost 52 jubilee cycles has transpired since the time of Ezekiel.

Interesting evidence that certain astronomers of the ancient Middle East might specifically have been counting the jubilee cycle (or some version thereof) can be found from sources external to Palestine: "The Assyrian sources include vestiges of a time unit larger than the year. Especially in records dealing with the reconstruction of sacred buildings, mention is made of a unit of 350 years, the rule being to postpone such restorations until 350, 700, or 1050 years had elapsed since the previous reconstruction or the original erection of a temple." (From Britannica, 1972, Calendar, Babylonian And Assyrian Calendars). [Note that 350 years are equivalent to 7 jubilee cycles, and 700 years are equivalent to 14 jubilee cycles, and 1050 years are equivalent to 21 jubilee cycles.]

The Pentecontad Interface

As cited in Chapter Two, it is apparent that--in addition to formally tracking 12 lunar months in each annual cycle--the Second Temple additionally counted cycles of seven-weeks.

The seven-weeks count was seemingly performed by counting whole-day units. Throughout a reoccurring count of 7-day weeks (always in interface with each lunar cycle) the uncounted tally of a mid-month delimiter ' d ' (which encompassed either a nighttime-unit or a daytime-unit) was additionally celebrated. Thus, the cycle of the pentecontad (a count of 50-whole-day-units) resulted from out of an ongoing formal count of weeks (always in interface with the lunar-cycle).

As Second Temple history seems to verify, the specific count of 50-whole-day-units was routinely celebrated throughout the seasonal harvest (at 7-times-7-whole-day-intervals). 

The Temple Scroll (and other scrolls) explicitly shows a total of three pentecontad cycles: one which terminated at a new-grain festival, a second terminated at new-wine festival, and the third at a new-oil festival. However, the respective scrolls (as previously cited in Chapter Two) only records 3 total festivals (and no more). 

A record of only 3 pentecontads is rather perplexing because the day-rate (inherent in 12 reoccurring lunar cycles) ultimately indicates a greater number of pentecontads (more than only a cycle of 3 pentecontads).

The Bible Book of Genesis (Chapters 7 and 8) perhaps indicates as many as 6 pentecontad cycles. (For additional information, refer to Chapter Two, and to Appendix A, of the current document). 

As cited in Chapter Three, it is logical to believe that the seven-weeks count was once specially employed in the definition of the annual circle, and ultimately in the definition of the jubilee cycle.

This connection between 7 weeks, and the definition of annual, and jubilee, cycles seems more certain in the regard that (over average time) a count of seven-squared lunar-weeks (or phases) remains orientated to a same annual alignment. 

Essentially, each passing annual circuit can be recognized to occur at the epoch of a 49^th lunar phase--as illustrated in the following diagram:

      A Perpetual Count Of 49 Lunar Phases Across 49 Years *
      ___________________________________________________________

         Seven-Year Cycle 1   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 2   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 3   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 4   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 5   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 6   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
         Seven-Year Cycle 7   49 49 49 49 49 49 49  +  1
              Fiftieth Year   49
      ___________________________________________________________

       * -- One lunar phase is extraneously counted each 3rd year.

This remarkable interface of 49 lunar phases achieves an annual circuit of 365.2443 days (which very closely compares with the actual annual circuit of 365.2422 days). (For additional information, refer to 'A Case For Created Time', now online at www.creation-answers.com).

Because the pentecontad was used to define a series of single-day harvest-cycle festivals (at grain, wine, and oil), the ongoing pentecontad cycle may ultimately have marked the location of other festivals (such as an indicated 'Feast-Of-Ingathering'. (For additional information, refer to Appendix B).

Lunar Phases

In pursuit of the Second Temple's definition of the annual solar cycle, Josephus, the Jewish priest-historian, in Antiquities, Book 3 (Chapter 9, 5-7) described the annual epic of the Passover festival. Josephus' description is significant because his reference was later-on used by early Christians in an effort to properly determine the date for Passover.

The Josephus account indicates the festival of Passover was celebrated at a time when two specific parameters were met: (1) The middle of the lunar circuit (a 14^th stage) was reached; and (2) The Sun arrived or appeared 'in Aries' (or in one of the twelve divisions in the zodiacal circle) .

The calendar information from Josephus--which indicates that Passover was observed in alignment with the middle of the lunar cycle, and in close association with a fixed point in the annual solar circuit seems to be synonymous to information from the Book of Jubilees:

"And God appointed the Sun [or fixed divisions in the annual circuit] to be a great sign on the Earth for days and for sabbaths and for months and for feasts and for years and for sabbaths of years and for jubilees and for all seasons of the years…". (From the Book Of Jubilees, Chapter 2:9-10; as translated by R.H. Charles). 

Because the weekly cycle remains aligned with the lunar quarter-phase, then it can be recognized to perpetually revolve into alignment (over average time) with the same epoch of the annual cycle--at each seventh lunar-phase.

       Seven Equal Time-Divisions In Each Annual Cycle * 
       _________________________________________________
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar-weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar weeks  (or phases)
                7 lunar weeks  (or phases) 
       _________________________________________________
       Total:  49 lunar weeks  (or phases) 
       * -- Interfaces with X1 and X2 (as previously documented).

This annual alignment perpetually occurs due to the fact that seven pentecontad cycles, or 49 lunar-weeks (in the context of the greater jubilee circuit), are equal (over average time) to 365.2443 days. 

A Seasonal Interface

The perpetual three-year cycle (as detailed above) uniquely coincides with the length of 12 annual quarters or 12 seasons. 

It seems of some related significance that this respective seasonal progression can be perpetually counted by fixed units of lunar phases as follows:

     Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4
       12   +   12   +   12   +   12   (48 total phases = year 1) 
       12   +   12   +   12   +   12   (48 total phases = year 2) 
       12   +   12   +   12   +   12   (48 total phases = year 3) 
    ---------------------------------------------------------------
      12 - denotes a count of 12 lunar-quarter-phases.
      (A half-moon is intercalated each 6th season).
      (A half-moon is intercalated across a grid of '7-year-units').

Thus, over average time each quarter year (or season) precisely aligns with, or is equal to, twelve lunar quarter-phases (plus the perpetual rates intercalation).

       A Perpetual Seasonal Count Of Lunar Phases Across 7 Years *
       -----------------------------------------------------------
                  Season 1   Season 2   Season 3   Season 4
       Year 1        12         12         12         12  
       Year 2        12         12         12         12  
       Year 3        12         12         12         12  
       Year 4        12         12         12         12  
       Year 5        12         12         12         12  
       Year 6        12         12         12         12 
       Year 7        12         12         12         12  

       12--Denotes a count of 12 lunar-phases in each season.
        *--Requires fixed intermission rates as cited.

        Solar Days: 2556.6954    Lunar Days:2556.7101
        Total Lunar Weeks: 346.3133 (effective rate).

In presenting a formal calendar based upon fixed counts of lunar phases, a count of pentecontads or seven week cycles seems to be a very good one, where seven pentecontads very nicely fit into each annual cycle. This seven-squared (or pentecontad) count then achieves an extremely interesting progression which expands in magnitudes of seven (seven-squared days, seven-squared weeks, seven-squared years). A related view of this amazing lunar-based calendar can be seen in a seasonal count of phases--where a nice 12 squared number of phases (or 144 lunar weeks) extends across each formalized segment of three years.

A specific seasonal count of lunar weeks is seemingly noteworthy in the respect that certain of the calendars found among the Dead Sea Scrolls used a fixed number of 91 days in each seasonal cycle. 

If a formal schedule of lunar weeks (or a fixed number of lunar phases) was the underlying basis of determining the original Shabbath-Chodesh schedule (as cited in Appendix A), then any resulting formal calendar would inherently have remained in average alignment with the seasonal progression (as diagrammed above). 

Here it is noteworthy that a precise alignment of 12 lunar phases with each seasonal cycle (as an alternate interpretation) can be mathematically expressed, as follows:

12 lunar quarter-phases + Xy + X1 + X2 = 12.3683 phases… (or also 91.311 days)

… (where: Xy = one lunar phase at the perpetual rate of each annual cycle; X1 = one lunar phase at the perpetual rate of each three annual cycles; and X2 = one lunar phase at the perpetual rate of each seventh year in fifty years).

Thus, one annual season (which happens to be 91.311 days in length) also precisely aligns with, or is equal to, 12 lunar quarter-phases + Xy + X1 + X2.

Summary

Early Jewish astronomers once used a rather sophisticated time-tracking system.

With improved modern knowledge it is now possible to recognize the jubilee time-cycle as more than an abstract count of seven-squared years, but rather as an extremely precise interface both of the lunar cycle and also of the annual solar circuit.

The heart-pulse of this incredible hebdomadal system was the seven-day unit--or the week--as it perpetually reoccurred in precise interface with each passing lunar phase. 

A cycle of weeks ultimately includes the average definition of the solar circuit, and--thanks to biblical (and related historical) information--a cycle-of-weeks can ultimately be recognized to include the unique definition of daytime and nighttime (as entwined within the specific definition of waxing and waning stages of the Moon). 

This formal weekly circuit--involving days and nights and stages of the Moon and fixed divisions of the Sun (whether aligning to boundaries of either daytime or nighttime)--is logically remarkable.

The early definition of the week points to intelligent functional design amid a reoccurring progression of waxing and waning cycles of the Moon, and also intentional order amid a reoccurring progression of seventh parts of the annual cycle of the Sun. (For additional information, refer to online documentation at www.creation-answers.com).

Based upon a definition of the Sabbath cycle (as contained in the Hebrew Old Testament and in the Greek New Testament), there is hardly any question but that this definition equates to a reoccurring 7-day interval:

"Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work:But the seventh day is the sabbath of the LORD thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it." (Exodux 20:9-11)

"Six days thou shalt do thy work, and on the seventh day thou shalt rest: that thine ox and thine ass may rest, and the son of thy handmaid, and the stranger, may be refreshed." (Exodus 23:12).

"Six days may work be done; but in the seventh is the sabbath of rest, holy to the LORD... " (Exodus 31:15).

"Six days thou shalt work, but on the seventh day thou shalt rest: in earing time and in harvest thou shalt rest." (Exodus 34:21).

"Six days shall work be done, but on the seventh day there shall be to you an holy day, a sabbath of rest to the LORD..." (Exodus 35:2).

"Six days shall work be done: but the seventh day is the sabbath of rest, an holy convocation; ye shall do no work therein: it is the sabbath of the LORD in all your dwellings." (Leviticus 23:3).

"Six days thou shalt labour, and do all thy work: But the seventh day is the sabbath of the LORD thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thine ox, nor thine ass, nor any of thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates; that thy manservant and thy maidservant may rest as well as thou." (Deuteronomy 5:13-14).

Based upon the biblical passages (as cited above) it isn't exactly evident that the early observed Sabbath cycle of 7 days was additionally based upon the reoccurring lunar cycle. 

The current section will then attempt to minimally show that the biblical cycle of 7 days (unlike the modern week which is based upon a reoccurring cycle of 7-days) was periodically interrupted by a singular day (an 8^th day). This section will also attempt to show that this singular day was specially celebrated (perhaps as a renewal of the Sabbath cycle). 

The most compelling evidence to substantiate the possibility that the seven-day count of the Bible was a periodically interrupted count can perhaps be recited from certain biblical texts which show that both singular and plural Sabbaths were once practiced. 

This evidence is most graphic from New Testament references to the Sabbath cycle--as more fully shown in Appendix C (where Appendix C includes an exhaustive compilation of all forms and usage of the word Sabbath in the Greek New Testament).

It seems that the Greek Version of the New Testament uses six different words in association to the Sabbath cycle: (1) Sabbasin; (2) Sabbatw; (3) Sabbaton; (4) Sabbatou; (5) Sabbatwn; and: (6) Sabbata.

Note that Greek and Hebrew words--as frequently cited throughout this analysis--can be verified through the use of an exhaustive concordance (such as Strong's) or found in Interlinear Greek and Interlinear Hebrew Bibles. 

Easy to use, computerized, Bible text is now available to help bridge this--seemingly difficult--language barrier. Specifically, 'The Online Bible' is currently available for PC DOS, for Windows, and for Macintosh computers, and at a very modest cost. 'The Online Bible' can even be downloaded for no cost from the Internet. (Search for sites which offer the 'The Online Bible', either for sale on CD, or for sites which offer the free download version).

Based upon parsed New Testament text (put out by CCAT at the University of Pennsylvania), the following singular and plural forms of the noun Sabbath (or Greek: Sabbaton) occur--as follows:

                Plural       Singular
               __________   _________
          1.   Sabbasin     Sabbatw
          2.   Sabbata      Sabbaton
          3.   Sabbatwn     Sabbatou

In deriving the early understood definition of the Sabbath cycle, it then seems significant that throughout the New Testament, both a singular usage, and a plural usage (as well as different forms) of the respective Greek noun 'Sabbaton' can be found. 

Specifically, the noun 'Sabbaton' can be recited from the Greek New Testament in 70 total instances--as follows:

      .  A plural form 'Sabbasin' is used in 15 instances 
      .  A plural form 'Sabbata' is used in 1 instance
      .  A plural form 'Sabbatwn' is used in 12 instances
      .  A singular form 'Sabbatou' is used in 13 instances
      .  A singular form 'Sabbaton' is used in 14 instances
      .  A singular form ' Sabbatw' is used in 15 instances

All of the 70 instances of the usage of the word 'Sabbaton' is listed in Appendix C.

It should be noted that 'Sabbata' (a plural form of 'Sabbaton') is used only one time in the Greek New Testament (as cited) but this plural form is used numerous times in the Greek OT Septuagint.

In addition to the above 70 instances, a closely related word 'Sabbatismos' is used once in the New Testament.

Another important part of the original definition of the Sabbath concerns the omission of a day descriptor. (The expression Sabbath day, or the expression Sabbath days, is seldom used). Essentially, the original texts--when expressing Sabbath time--consistently leave off a day descriptor. Consequently, Sabbath time is invariably expressed as belonging within either the Sabbath, or the Sabbaths.

The Luke/Acts author occasionally uses the word 'day' in association with Sabbath time. In general, the New Testament authors--for some reason--avoided using the 'day' descriptor in reference to Sabbath time (perhaps because the routinely appearing Sabbath--as it would have appeared amid stages of the lunar cycle--can not adequately be described as occurring on only one day). (For additional information, refer to Appendix C and to Appendix D).

The next several paragraphs will set forth additional detail of the early definition of the Sabbath by citing the rather prevalent New Testament usage of plural Sabbath time. Based upon the original usage of a plural Sabbath interval, it becomes clearer that the early week--as it would have been understood in the early Christian Era--was rather different from the definition of the week (as used and understood in this modern era).

A good example of the early Sabbath week (which included more than one Sabbath interval) can perhaps be recited from the Book of Luke as follows:

"And it came to pass, on the Deuteroprotos Sabbatw [or the 'Second-First Sabbath'], as he is going through the corn fields, that his disciples were plucking the ears, and were eating, rubbing with the hands, And certain of the Pharisees said unto them, Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on the Sabbasin [or Sabbaths]?" (AV Text of Luke 6:1-2 with selected Greek word substitutions).

This interesting passage refers to an interval which seems to involve plural Sabbaths ('Sabbasin'), and--in addition--this peculiar interval contains a single Sabbath termed as Second-First Sabbatw (or 'Deuterprotos Sabbatw'). 

A cross-reference to this same time interval is recorded in the Book of Matthew as follows: 

"At that time Jesus went on the Sabbasin [Sabbaths] through the corn; and his disciples were an hungred, and began to pluck the ears of corn, and to eat. But when the Pharisees saw it, they said unto him, Behold, thy disciples do that which is not lawful to do upon the Sabbatw. But he said unto them, Have ye not read what David did, when he was an hungred, and they that were with him; How he entered into the house of God, and did eat the shewbread, which was not lawful for him to eat, neither for them which were with him, but only for the priests? 

Or have ye not read in the law, how that on the Sabbasin [Sabbaths] the priests in the temple profane the Sabbaton, and are blameless? But I say unto you, That in this place is one greater than the temple. But if ye had known what this meaneth, I will have mercy, and not sacrifice, ye would not have condemned the guiltless. For the Son of man is Lord even of the Sabbaton.

And when he was departed thence, he went into their synagogue: And, behold, there was a man which had his hand withered. And they asked him, saying, Is it lawful to heal on the Sabbasin [Sabbaths]? that they might accuse him. And he said unto them, What man shall there be among you, that shall have one sheep, and if it fall into a pit on the Sabbasin [Sabbaths], will he not lay hold on it, and lift it out? How much then is a man better than a sheep? Wherefore it is lawful to do well on the Sabbasin [Sabbaths]. Then saith he to the man, Stretch forth thine hand. And he stretched it forth; and it was restored whole, like as the other.". [AV Text of Matthew 12:1-13 with selected Greek word substitutions).

This passage from Matthew is in common context with the same account in Luke. Both accounts refer to the same interval of 'Sabbasin' (or plural Sabbaths); however, Luke provides additional detail of this common date by describing one of the Sabbaths as 'Deuteroprotos Sabbatw' (or the Second-First Sabbatw).

Notice, from the Matthew account that the incident of the man with the withered hand seems to have also occurred completely within the framework of this same date (the 'Sabbasin', or plural Sabbaths). This is of additional interest because the date can then be cross-referenced back to the account in Luke, as follows: 

"And it came to pass, on the Deuteroprotos Sabbatw [or the 'Second-First' Sabbatw], as he [Jesus] is going through the corn fields, that his disciples were plucking the ears, and were eating, rubbing with the hands, And certain of the Pharisees said unto them, Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on the Sabbasin [or Sabbaths]? …

… [verse 6] And it came to pass also on heteros Sabbatw [the other Sabbatw], that he entered into the synagogue and taught: and there was a man whose right hand was withered. And the scribes and Pharisees watched him, whether he would heal on the Sabbatw; that they might find an accusation against him. But he knew their thoughts, and said to the man which had the withered hand, Rise up, and stand forth in the midst. And he arose and stood forth. Then said Jesus unto them, I will ask you one thing; Is it lawful on the Sabbasin [Sabbaths] to do good, or to do evil? to save life, or to destroy it?" ( AV Text of Luke 6:1-9 with selected Greek word substitutions).

Luke shows the incident of the man with the withered hand occurring following or on the 'Second-First Sabbatw' (as does Matthew by implication), but Luke additionally states that the withered hand event occurred 'on heteros Sabbatw' [or perhaps 'the other Sabbatw']. The cross-referenced detail reveals the appearance of a singular Sabbath (heteros Sabbatw) as it appeared seemingly in-line with at least one other Sabbath. 

Then, the two accounts (Matthew and Luke) significantly reveal an interval of more than a single Sabbath (or 'Sabbasin' which means plural Sabbaths). This respective interval included a singular date termed the 'Deuteroprotos Sabbatw ' (or the Second-First Sabbath), and the interval also included a singular date termed the 'heteros Sabbatw' (or the other Sabbath).

The interesting 'Second-First' Sabbath date seemingly occurred in alignment with one of the specific lunar-phases--as further detailed in chapters above. This date probably occurred at the mid-month, or the new-month point--when the second Sabbath arrived. The reference to 'the other Sabbath' probably occurred in this same time frame…perhaps in the extended Sabbath interval (as also further detailed in subsequent paragraphs). 

Another interesting combination of plural Sabbath time is recorded in the Book of Acts as follows:

"… Paul and his company … went into the synagogue on the Sabbatwn [a date which signifies an extended Sabbath time]… And when the Jews were gone out of the synagogue, the Gentiles besought that these words might be preached to them Metaxu Sabbaton ['the Between Sabbath']…. And the Erchomai Sabbatw [the appearance of the coming Sabbatw] came almost the whole city together to hear the word of God." (AV Text of Acts 13:13-14 with selected Greek word substitutions).

The reference to the date Sabbatwn (or plural Sabbath time) aligned with Metaxu Sabbaton (or the Between Sabbaton) is unusual. The Metaxu Sabbaton in the narrative seems to be exactly equivalent to the arrival of the Sabbatw (when the whole city assembled).

This date--which occurred at 'Sabbatwn'--reflects a period of extended Sabbath time which aligned with either the full or new phase of the lunar month cycle ( or also possibly with the appearance of a Sun's Day, as more fully explained in Appencix D).

There are a number of additional instances of the New Testament usage of plural Sabbaths (as shown in Appendix C). 

An early understood connection between the weekly Sabbath and the lunar cycle is seemingly manifest from a number of texts (either biblical texts, or closely associated to biblical texts):

[Christian converts have their own part in observing]... an Holyday, ... the New Moon, ... [and] the Sabbatwn… (Colossians 2:16) 

[Peter] inferred thus: "Neither worship as [some] Jews… [for] if the moon be not visible, they do not hold the Sabbath, which is called the first; nor do they hold the new moon, nor the feast of unleavened bread, nor the feast, nor the great day." (Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 5).

And in periods of seven days the moon undergoes its changes. In the first week she becomes half moon; in the second, full moon; and in the third, in her wane, again half moon; and in the fourth she disappears.(St. Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 16).

… the Moon gives the sign for the festival... (Sirach, Chapter 43:7).

… let all the festivals and sabbaths and new Moons ….be days of exemption... (1 Maccabes, Chapter 10:34); 

… the festival of weeks ... (2 Maccabes, Chapter 12:3) [as perhaps a festival standing out from the weeks] 

… [Feasting] occurs at... 'Sabbatwn', and at... 'noumhniwn' (or the New Moons)…" (Judith 8:6). (For additional information concerning this verse, refer to subsequent sections)

1 Samuel 20:5-6,18,24,27; 21:5. 

Some researchers postulate that the Israelite Shabbath (an acknowledged lunar-based cycle) must have originated in association with the Babylonian Sabatu (also lunar based). Here, it is evident that the "the Babylonian … seven-day week.. was the 7^th, 14^th, 21^st, and 28^th days of every [lunar] month…" (Encyclopedia Of Religion and Ethics By Hastings, Sabbath: Babylonian).

Others scholars disagree--at least in part--with the premise that the Babylonian Sabatu is the origin of the Israelite Shabbath, and instead, they prefer a slightly different hypothesis: "the Babylonian sabattu and the Israelite Sabbath, sprang from a common [Semite] source.…" (Interpreters Dictionary: Sabbaths).

This indicated original lunar-based definition of the Sabbath cycle seems to indeed be detectable in a number of biblical texts--where calendar terms: new moons (or technically: new beginnings) and Sabbaths are chronologically linked together:

"And he said, Wherefore wilt thou go to him to day? it is neither new moon [chodesh], nor Sabbath. And she said, It shall be well. "(AV text of 2 Kings 4:2).

"And it shall come to pass, that from one new moon [chodesh] to another, and from one Sabbath to another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the LORD. "(AV text of Isaiah 66:23).

"Thus saith the Lord GOD; The gate of the inner court that looketh toward the east shall be shut the six working days; but on the Sabbath it shall be opened, and in the day of the new moon [chodesh] it shall be opened." (AV text of Ezekiel 46:1).

"Saying, When will the new moon [chodesh] be gone, that we may sell corn? and the Sabbath, that we may set forth wheat, making the ephah small, and the shekel great, and falsifying the balances by deceit?" (AV text of Amos 8:5). 

Here, it is pertinent to take into account that a lunar-based Sabbath count is required to have included a singular day or days (or lunar stages, as documented in Chapter Three). This is because a 28 day cycle (or four repeating Sabbath cycles)--as an uninterrupted count--does not quite interface with the lunar cycle (which contains 29 ½ days). Essentially, it is fully necessary that the Sabbath cycle (as an interface with the moon cycle) be an interrupted count--where a periodic additional day (a singular day not belonging amid the cycle of weeks) is periodically intercalated.

Some of the biblical texts seem to indicate the special celebration of the 'new moon', or 'chodesh' , or 'new beginnings'. This unique intermission interval was celebrated with special sacrifices--as follows:

"Blow in the month a trumpet, In the 'chodesh', at the day of our festival." (Psalms 81:3, based upon YLT).

"And David said unto Jonathan, Behold, to morrow is the 'chodesh', and I should not fail to sit with the king at meat…" (AV text of 1 Samuel 20:5).

"And in the beginnings of your 'chodesh' ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, seven lambs of the first year without spot; And three tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one bullock; and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one ram; And a several tenth deal of flour mingled with oil for a meat offering unto one lamb; for a burnt offering of a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD. And their drink offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bullock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an hin unto a lamb: this is the burnt offering of every 'Chodesh' [throughout each] 'Chodesh' of the year. And one kid of the goats for a sin offering unto the LORD shall be offered, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering." (AV text of Numbers 28:11-15).

Thus, the Bible indicates a specially celebrated 'chodesh' or 'new beginnings' event (synonymous with a routinely appearing feast which required sacrificial offerings). 

In exploring the early celebration of 'chodesh', it seems significant that the meaning of the word 'chodesh' is akin to the meaning of 'renewal' or 'new beginning' (where the root meaning of this word is not specifically linked to the meaning of new moon). (The root of the word 'chodesh'--in fact--is identical to the root of the biblical word: 'chadash' (which is frequently translated as 'new'). 

Here, it seems pertinent to consider that the biblical word for the Moon itself is 'Yerach'. 

Throughout biblical texts, the word for the literal Moon or 'Yerach' is never directly mentioned in association with the formal sacrificial schedule (as is both 'the chodesh and the Sabbaths'). 

The following paragraphs will set forth additional detail to more clearly delineate that the biblical 'New Beginnings' or 'Chodesh' Feast was probably celebrated at a formal calendar division. 

The following list shows almost every occurrence of the word 'yerach'--as it chronologically is used throughout biblical texts (but the list omits verses which contain miscellaneous usage, such as the proper names of individuals, etc.): 

[AV text (with selected Hebrew word substitutions):]

Genesis 37:9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told it his brethren, and said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the sun and the moon and the eleven stars made obeisance to me.

Deuteronomy 4:19 And lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, and when thou seest the sun, and the moon, and the stars, even all the host of heaven, shouldest be driven to worship them, and serve them, which the LORD thy God hath divided unto all nations under the whole heaven.

Deuteronomy 17:3 And hath gone and served other gods, and worshipped them, either the sun, or moon, or any of the host of heaven, which I have not commanded;

Deuteronomy 21:13 And she shall put the raiment of her captivity from off her, and shall remain in thine house, and bewail her father and her mother a full month: and after that thou shalt go in unto her, and be her husband, and she shall be thy wife.

Joshua 10:12 Then spake Joshua to the LORD in the day when the LORD delivered up the Amorites before the children of Israel, and he said in the sight of Israel, Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon.

1 Kings 6:37 In the fourth year was the foundation of the house of the LORD laid, in the month Zif:

1 Kings 6:38 And in the eleventh year, in the month [yerach] Bul, which is the eighth month [chodesh], was the house finished throughout all the parts thereof, and according to all the fashion of it. So was he seven years in building it.

1 Kings 8:2 And all the men of Israel assembled themselves unto king Solomon at the feast in the month [yerach] Ethanim, which is the seventh month [chodesh].

2 Kings 15:13 Shallum the son of Jabesh began to reign in the nine and thirtieth year of Uzziah king of Judah; and he reigned a full month in Samaria.

2 Kings 23:5 And he put down the idolatrous priests, whom the kings of Judah had ordained to burn incense in the high places in the cities of Judah, and in the places round about Jerusalem; them also that burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the host of heaven.

Ezra 6:15 And this house was finished on the third day of the month Adar, which was in the sixth year of the reign of Darius the king.

Job 25:5 Behold even to the moon, and it shineth not; yea, the stars are not pure in his sight.

Job 31:26 If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness;

Psalms 8:3 When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained;

Psalms 72:5 They shall fear thee as long as the sun and moon endure, throughout all generations.

Psalms 72:7 In his days shall the righteous flourish; and abundance of peace so long as the moon endureth.

Psalms 89:37 It shall be established for ever as the moon, and as a faithful witness in heaven. Selah.

Psalms 104:19 He appointed the moon for seasons: the sun knoweth his going down.

Psalms 121:6 The sun shall not smite thee by day, nor the moon by night.

Psalms 136:9 The moon and stars to rule by night: for his mercy endureth for ever.

Psalms 148:3 Praise ye him, sun and moon: praise him, all ye stars of light.

Ecclesiastes 12:2 While the sun, or the light, or the moon, or the stars, be not darkened, nor the clouds return after the rain:

Isaiah 13:10 For the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light: the sun shall be darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to shine.

Isaiah 60:19 The sun shall be no more thy light by day; neither for brightness shall the moon give light unto thee: but the LORD shall be unto thee an everlasting light, and thy God thy glory.

Isaiah 60:20 Thy sun shall no more go down; neither shall thy moon withdraw itself: for the LORD shall be thine everlasting light, and the days of thy mourning shall be ended.

Jeremiah 8:2 And they shall spread them before the sun, and the moon, and all the host of heaven, whom they have loved, and whom they have served, and after whom they have walked, and whom they have sought, and whom they have worshipped: they shall not be gathered, nor be buried; they shall be for dung upon the face of the earth.

Jeremiah 31:35 Thus saith the LORD, which giveth the sun for a light by day, and the ordinances of the moon and of the stars for a light by night, which divideth the sea when the waves thereof roar; The LORD of hosts is his name:

Ezekiel 32:7 And when I shall put thee out, I will cover the heaven, and make the stars thereof dark; I will cover the sun with a cloud, and the moon shall not give her light.

Joel 2:10 The earth shall quake before them; the heavens shall tremble: the sun and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining:

Joel 2:31 The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and the terrible day of the LORD come.

Joel 3:15 The sun and the moon shall be darkened, and the stars shall withdraw their shining.

Habakkuk 3:11 The sun and moon stood still in their habitation: at the light of thine arrows they went, and at the shining of thy glittering spear.

Zechariah 11:8 Three shepherds also I cut off in one month; and my soul lothed them, and their soul also abhorred me. 

Throughout all of the biblical verses which do use the word Moon or 'Yerach', there isn't any instruction concerning the event of a literal new yerach or a new moon (a time when a Moon Festival would be routinely celebrated). In addition, there is no biblical mention of a sacrifice schedule in exclusive association with the Moon or 'Yerach'.

Here, it becomes a bit of a puzzle that biblical texts never refer to the Moon or 'Yerach' and the Sabbaths (in any combination whatsoever).

This omission of festival sacrifices in association with the 'Yerach' may be due to the underlying meaning of the Hebrew word: 'yerach', which aptly means the physical appearance of the literal Moon (as an observable shining object). In some instances of biblical usage, however, 'yerach' is found to pertain to the literal time-cycle of the lunar period. (This secondary usage as a specific time-period is evident in the above listing).

To the converse of the seemingly unobserved 'Yerach', the 'chodesh' or 'new beginnings' does clearly seem to have an association with the Sabbath cycle (as noted above). Consequently, it may be that the chodesh (or the renewal) in early times had a somewhat different meaning from the classic modern meaning of the period of the moon, or also of the literal Moon (as an object).

Here, it is of special interest that among all of the biblical texts which do refer to the literal Moon (or 'Yerach'), only two passages use a date consisting of both the Moon (or 'Yerach') and the 'chodesh' (or 'new beginnings'):

[AV text (with selected Hebrew word substitutions):]

"In the fourth year was the foundation of the house of the LORD laid, in the 'Yerach Zif'… And in the eleventh year, in the 'Yerach Bul', which is the 'eighth chodesh, was the house finished… So was he seven years in building it." (1 Kings 6:37-38).

"And all the men of Israel assembled… in the 'Yerach Ethanim', which is the 'seventh chodesh'… And at that time Solomon held a feast, and all Israel with him… seven days and seven days, even fourteen days. On the eighth day he sent the people away…" (1 Kings 8:2-66). 

In only these two passages of the entire Bible, the physical Moon (or 'Yerach') is listed along side of a respective new beginnings or 'chodesh'. In two of the three instances, the 'chodesh' listed is provided with a respective number (8 and 7). In all three of the instances, the 'yerach' is supplied with a word adjective (which word may correspond to a label or to a month name). The three adjectives tacked onto the physical Moon are as follows: 1. 'Zif Moon', which possibly means 'brightness of the Moon'; 2. 'Bul Moon', which possibly means ' increasing Moon'; and: 3. 'Ethanim Moon', which possibly means 'enduring Moon'. 

It is possible that these adjectives are month names, and they may relate to the Canaanite or Phoenician Calendar (as some believe). However, two of the dates: 1. 'Brightness Moon' (or Zif Moon); and; 2. 'Increasing Moon' (or Bul Moon), could logically be interpreted as specific phases of the Moon--where the two dates simply refer to: 1. The waning-half of the Moon cycle when more of the time it appears in the bright part of the day; and: 2. The waxing-half of the Moon cycle when more of the time it appears during the nighttime (perhaps exactly as detailed in Chapters Three and Four). The 'Enduring Moon' may likewise relate to an entire half-month festival cycle (from Shabbathown to Shabbathown--as noted in Chapters Four and Five). 

The biblical usage of the 'Yerach' and the 'chodesh'--both together in a presumably same calendar (as noted in 1 Kings shown above) has two possible meanings: 1. The 'chodesh' as a cycle is equivalent to the period of 'Yerach' (in the sense of being a time-cycle which equals the lunar-period); or: 2. The 'chodesh' pertains to a time-cycle which is at-least relative to the phases of 'Yerach' (in the sense that a time-span of phases of the Moon ultimately comprises a 'chodesh' cycle). 

Ultimately, it seems that the calendar of 1 Kings--which shows the usage of 'chodesh'--may not exactly be equivalent to a calendar of lunar periods (according to the classic definition). Essentially, a renewal ('chodesh') may more appropriately have been relative to the lunar phases. 

Thus, the indicated calendar usage of the combined Sabbath and chodesh cycle was almost surely rooted in a calendar of lunar phases. (For additional information, refer to Chapters Three and Four).

The calendar usage of a combined Sabbath-chodesh cycle is very evident from the Bible Book of Ezekiel as follows: 

"Thus saith the Lord GOD; The gate of the inner court that looketh toward the east shall be shut the six working days; but on the Sabbath it shall be opened, and in the day of the 'chodesh' [the day of the new beginnings] it shall be opened." (Ezekiel 46:1).

Here, it seems very clear that the early definition of the Sabbath week was directly relative to the definition of the chodesh (or the new beginnings). 

Composite biblical information indicates that the Sabbath cycle was periodically interrupted by a specially celebrated 'Chodesh' Feast.

It is additionally noteworthy that a time of renewal ('chadash') is similarly indicated amid the pentecontad cycle:

"... And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new [or chadash] … offering unto the LORD. (Leviticus, Chapter 23:10-23).

Thus, the cycle of the Sabbath was seemingly routinely interrupted by a specially celebrated 'Chodesh' Feast (which was routinely held amid the reoccurring lunar cycle). In a circle of 7 Sabbaths an additionally celebrated 'Chadesh' Feast was seemingly held. 

An Indicated Renewal In The Sabbath Cycle

If a special singular date did periodically appear amid a cycle of weeks then it should be very easy to identify amid the original biblical texts. 

An easy to spot instance of a special singular date (a 'ONE') can be recited from the prophetic book of Ezekiel--where a calendar which contains a unique renewal (standing out from a cycle of weeks) is referenced as follows: 

"…in the 'ONE to Chodesh'[or 'ECHAD' to Chodesh] you shall take a young bullock without blemish, and cleanse the sanctuary… and so thou shalt do the 'SEVEN to Chodesh' [or Sheba to Chodesh] for every one that erreth… so shall ye reconcile the house." (Ezekiel, Chapter 45:18-20). 

This verse is significant because it seemingly mirrors certain ceremonial practices under the First Temple. Of particular interest is the celebration of 'ONE to Chodesh' (or 'ECHAD to Chodesh'), a routinely celebrated feast in the early used religious schedule. This peculiar 'ONE' seems to equate to a unique single renewal (a time-unit which seemingly stood completely apart from the weekly sequence--as further noted below). 

Seemingly in chronology with the ceremonious feast (which appeared at the 'ONE' or 'ECHAD'), the early used calendar also is indicated to have contained a feast which was celebrated on 'SEVEN to Chodesh'. This second respective festival event possibly equates a sequence of Sabbath weeks (or 7 + 7 stages of the Moon waxing and waning (as documented in Chapter Three). 

Of special interest is the fact that both of these feast dates (the 'ONE' and the 'SEVEN') were uniquely special in the regard that a sanctification ceremony was observed on both of these events (and with special sacrifices performed on both dates). 

The biblical texts--as listed below--are arranged chronologically in an attempt to depict the ancient usage of a single… or ONE… or ECHAD date (a date frequently used in association with the 'chodesh' or 'new beginnings'). It is logical to believe that this single date, the ECHAD (as listed below), was originally significant in a lunar-based calendar (where a cycle of Sabbath weeks was continuously counted in close correspondence with the phases of the Moon): 

[In order to improve recognition of the original words, each instance of the word 'echad' is shown as 'ONE' (see remarks below), and each instance of 'chodesh' is shown as 'chodesh']

Genesis 8:5 … on the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', were the tops of the mountains seen… 

Genesis 8:13 … in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', the waters were dried up from off the earth…

Leviticus 23:24 … in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh' shall ye have a Shabbathown...

Numbers 1:1 … on the 'ONE' to the second 'chodesh' in the second year…

Numbers 1:18 … on the 'ONE' of the second 'chodesh', and they declared their births…

Numbers 29:1 … on the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', ye shall have an holy convocation…

Numbers 33:38 … in the 'ONE' of the fifth 'chodesh' (Aaron died).

Deuteronomy 1:3 … in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', Moses spake unto the children of Israel…

2 Chronicles 29:17 … on the 'ONE' of the first 'chodesh' they began to sanctify…

Ezra 3:6 … on the 'ONE' Day of the seventh 'chodesh' began they to offer burnt offerings…

Ezra 7:9 … from the 'ONE' of the first 'chodesh' began he to go up from Babylon, 

Ezra 7:9… and by the 'ONE' of the fifth 'chodesh' came he to Jerusalem… 

Ezra 10:16 … from the 'ONE' Day of the tenth 'chodesh'….

Ezra 10:17 … by the 'ONE' Day of the first 'chodesh'.

Nehemiah 8:2 … upon the 'ONE' Day of the seventh 'chodesh'…

Ezekiel 26:1 … in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', the word of the LORD came unto me…

Ezekiel 29:17… in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', the word of the LORD came unto me…

Ezekiel 31:1 … in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', the word of the LORD came unto me…

Ezekiel 32:1… in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh', the word of the LORD came unto me…

Ezekiel 45:18 … in the 'ONE' to the 'chodesh'… cleanse the sanctuary…

Haggai 1:1 … in the 'ONE' Day to the 'chodesh', came the word of the LORD by Haggai… 

As further explained below, each of these cited 'ONE' (or 'ECHAD') dates may have been essential in marking off a specific segment or number of weeks--where each chodesh cycle was formal and corresponded to specific set of weeks. 

The Hebrew word 'echad' is used 952 times throughout biblical texts. The King James translators correctly translated 'echad' to have a singular meaning in most instances (as it appears in the authorized Bible). 'echad' is translated as 'one' in 687 instances, 'another' in 35 instances, 'other' in 30 instances, 'any' in 18 instances, 'once' in 13 instances, 'eleven' (or 1 + 10) in 13 instances, 'every' in 10 instances, 'certain' in 9 instances, 'an' in 7 instances, and 'some' in 7 instances. Unfortunately, the translators chose to translate 'echad' as 'first' in 36 (of the 952) instances--and this choice appears to be very unsatisfactory in that the singular meaning is lost. Essentially, there is a distinctly different nuance of meaning between a 'one' and a 'first' (as shown in the 21 instances listed above). Clearly, 'echad' should unilaterally be translated in favor of a singular meaning (not as a 'first'). This necessary correction in the translation of 'ecahd' becomes quite significant in the documentation of an ancient calendar of weeks--which did contain a periodic single date… a single renewal which was not a week day. 

The calendar date: the 'ECHAD' (or the 'ONE') was obviously special, and it may have been ceremoniously observed. Its appearance could have heralded a renewal, or a new beginning. It seems that the arrival of this singular date was both a terminal delimiter, as well as a beginning delimiter for a new count of weeks. 

The calendar date of the special 'ONE' (the 'ECHAD') appears to be uniquely different from another ancient calendar term: 'rosh' or 'rishon' (which does mean 'first', and is duly used to describe a 'first day', or a 'first chodesh'). 

The special singular date--as used in the Hebrew Bible--is seemingly referred to a number times in other Hebrew (and early Christian) texts. (Sometimes, this date was referred to--not as a 'ONE' --but in association to an extra whole-day… or an eighth day… or as the occurrence of a day which cyclically exists beyond the week days). (For additional information, refer to Appendix C and to Appendix D).

Extended Sabbath Time

The Sabbath period which formally occurred at either the new-month interval, or at the mid-month interval (refer to Chapter Three), can seemingly be identified through the use of a term called 'Sabbatwn' (a plural form of Sabbath time). An example of the usage of this monthly term can be found in the New Testament Book of Colossians as follows:

"[Christian converts have their own part]... in respect of an Holyday, ... the new moon, [and]... the 'Sabbatwn' " (Colossians, 3:16).

Note the Greek word 'Sabbatwn', as used in this passage, is a plural form of Sabbath time.

From this passage it is clear that early Jews and Christians were--at least--holding a feast in association with the time of the appearance of the new moon. 

The cited passage also refers to a celebration held at a time interval referred to as 'Sabbatwn' (a plural form of Sabbaton). 

Ultimately, the Greek word 'Sabbatwn' (in the complete context of its Second-Temple usage) can largely be demonstrated to have been a formal lunar-cycle term. The plural Sabbaths (or 'Sabbatwn') seem to refer to two specific lunar-quarter-phase events. The two respective Sabbaths (or lunar-quarter-phases) routinely appeared opposite to the half-month phases. (For additional information concerning the 'Sabbatwn', refer to Chapter Three, Appendix C and Appendix D).

This 'Sabbatwn', as noted in the Book of Colossians above, would have routinely reoccurred twice in each lunar cycle. The two Sabbaths would specifically have appeared at alternate lunar-quarter phases, or in opposite halves of the lunar cycle. (Refer to the subsequent diagram) .

In some instances of usage it is perhaps evident that the first half of the lunar cycle, up to the time of (perceptually) the full-Moon reverse, may have formally been referred to as Sabbatwn (Greek), a plural term. Then the last half of the lunar cycle, up to the time of (perceptually) the new-Moon reverse, may formally have been referred as Noumhniwn (Greek), also a plural term.

     A Formal Count Of Lunar-Stages (Used Under The Second Temple)
     _______________________________________________________________

     Week cycle 1 = 1st stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    2nd stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    3rd stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    4th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    5th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    6th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    7th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
     Week cycle 2 = 8th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                    9th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   10th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   11th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   12th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   13th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
                   14th stage of Moon waxing (nighttime + daytime)
     Full Moon evening (½ stage)      *      (nighttime          )
     Week cycle 3 = 1st stage of Moon waning (daytime + nighttime)
                    2nd stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    3rd stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    4th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    5th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    6th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                    7th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
     Week cycle 4 = 8th stage of Moon waning (daytime + nighttime)
                    9th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   10th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   11th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   12th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   13th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
                   14th stage of Moon waxing (daytime + nighttime)
      New Moon daylight (½ stage)    **      (daytime            ) 
     _______________________________________________________________
      * -- The Moon "rules all night… " on this evening.
     ** -- The Moon "rules all the day… " on this day.

Scroll 4Q317 (as also previously cited in Chapter Three) additionally shows the occurrence of 'Echd BShbt' (or literally, ECHAD to Sabbath, or the 'ONE of the Sabbath') in correspondence with the waxing and waning stages of the Moon:

This peculiar reoccurring date, the 'ONE to the Sabbath', is oddly shown to reappear in seeming correspondence to a span of time 14 ½ days in length (specifically in correspondence with the intervals lunar-cycle phase changes). 

While it is clear from Scroll 4Q317 that the 'ONE to the Sabbath' corresponds to two specific lunar-quarter phases (spaced at opposite halves of the lunar cycle, and thus spaced 14 and ½ days apart), it isn't fully or exactly clear--from the cited scroll--whether the ' ONE to the Sabbath' should refer to the first-phase (or first quarter) and to the third-phase (or third quarter), or to the new-phase and to the full-phase. Essentially, the moon (of perceptually 29 total parts) could commence 'entering the day' after the third quarter (14 ½ parts revealed) and it could begin 'entering the night' after the first quarter (14 ½ parts obscured), etc., etc..

The early understanding of the term ECHAD to Sabbath, or 'ONE to the Sabbath', (as shown on Scroll 4Q317) can hardly have been that of the first day of the literal seven-day week. Instead, the reoccurring date 'ONE to the Sabbath', spaced at 14 ½ day intervals, is indicated to distinctly pertain to the two nodes of the lunar-half-cycle (similar to the above shown diagram). 

This early understood distinction between the two specific waxing and waning halves of the lunar cycle can seemingly be found in The Stromata as follows:

[Peter] inferred thus: "Neither worship as Jews… [for] if the moon be not visible, they do not hold the Sabbath, which is called the first [or the Sabbaths which first appear opposite the new moon phases]; nor do they hold the new moon [or the Sabbaths which last appear opposite the 'first' Sabbath phases]...." (Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Chapter 5). [Note that brackets have been inserted into the quote to help improve the probable original meaning.]

From this indicated formal distinction in the quarter-divisions of the lunar cycle--as seemingly was understood under the Second Temple--it is probable that the first half of the lunar cycle specifically corresponded to the Sabbatwn interval (or the lunar-phases opposite to the new moon), while the last half of the lunar cycle corresponded to the new moon (or the lunar-phases opposite to the Sabbatwn). It is also probable that the Sabbatwn and new moon intervals were counted across quarter-phases (as an alternating sequence). 

This early recognition of a formal division in the lunar cycle can seemingly be identified in the Book of Luke:

"And it came to pass, on the Deuteroprotos Sabbatw [or the 'Second-First Sabbath'], as he is going through the corn fields... " (AV Text of Luke 6:1).

A mid-month festival-interval (also formally referred to as 'Sabbatwn') can explicitly be recited from the Apocryphal Book of Judith as follows:

"[Feasting occurs at]… 'Sabbatwn' [or at quarter-cycle intervals]... and 'Noumhniwn' [or the new month intervals]…" (Judith 8:6).

As in other texts from this time in history, the verse from Judith also seemingly verifies that the Sabbatwn intervals were understood to appear on opposite sides to the new moon intervals. 

The Judith verse also seems to refer to the quarter-interval Sabbaths (which were understood to appear between or before the 'Sabbatwn' intervals, and between or before the 'Noumhniwn') as follows:

"… [Feasting occurs] at 'pro-Sabbatwn' (or routinely before the mid-month intervals), and at the 'Sabbatwn' (or the mid-month intervals)), and at 'Pro-noumhniwn' (or routinely before the New Moon intervals), and at the 'Noumhniwn' (or the new moon intervals), and on the solemn days…" (Judith 8:6).

Interestingly, the Book of Judith seems to describe four specific lunar-cycle intervals as times for Sabbath feasting (extraneous to the solemn days). It is possible that the early understood meaning of these four Sabbath intervals was relative to the four formally spaced Sabbath divisions of the lunar cycle. (Refer to the diagram shown above).

It is of further interest that the cited solemn feasts were probably originally celebrated at the 'atsrah' (or in correspondence to seven formally spaced pentecontad divisions of the annual solar circuit--as cited in previous chapters).

A related date: prosabbaton (a singular form of Sabbath) can be found in the Bible Book of Mark 15:42-43. This respective usage (while the date is actually located in the 'first-half' of the lunar cycle) seems to more specifically relate to the 'preparation' (and more logically seems to mean the time-interval occurring immediately before the 'Sabbaton' (as a singular event).

It is additionally significant that the recorded resurrection of Jesus--in all New Testament instances--is unilaterally noted to have occurred at the 'ONE' of the Sabbatwn (as fully detailed in Appendix C, and in Appendix D).

A date of Sabbatwn is also noted in the Book Of 1Corinthians (as shown in Appendix D).

A special festival interval--at the Sabbatwn--is graphically recorded twice in the Book of Acts--as follows:

1. "… on the Sabbatwn… the Gentiles besought that these words might be preached to them Metaxu Sabbaton [the middle Sabbath]…. And the Erchomai Sabbatw [the coming Sabbath] came almost the whole city together to hear the word of God." (AV Text of Acts 13:13-14).

2. "And upon the 'ONE' of the Sabbatwn when the disciples came together to break bread, Paul preached … and continued his speech until midnight. And there were many lights in the upper chamber, where they were gathered together… When he …. had broken bread, and eaten, and talked a long while, even till break of day, so he departed." (AV Text of Acts 20:7)

This plural term ('Sabbatwn') for two specific phases of the lunar-cycle (perhaps appearing exclusively at the middle-half, or at the beginning-half of the lunar cycle) can also be found in the Hebrew Old Testament--where in Hebrew the term seemingly corresponds to the word 'Shabbathown'. 

A probable instance of Sabbath time appearing in correspondence with a specific phase of the moon can be recited from the Bible Book Of Leviticus 23:24 (as translated in: 'The Interlinear NIV Hebrew-English Old Testament'): 

"… on the 7th month, on the ECHAD-to-the-chodesh, will be to you Shabbathown… ".

In this passage, a date termed 'Shabbathown' is used. This Hebrew word appears to be a variation of a word more commonly used for the standard 7^th Day Sabbath (which in the original language is the word: 'Shabbath').

Here, it seems significant to point out that the original Hebrew word used is: 'Shabbathown' (not necessarily a standard Sabbath)… and this original term seems to have association to: 1-to-the-lunar-cycle or 'ECHAD to chodesh' (and technically seems to correspond to something more than a 7^th day of the week). 

It ultimately seems significant that the Hebrew terms Shabbath and Shabbathown can be recognized to refer to not just a single Shabbath, but perhaps to specific phases of the lunar cycle. (The time of Shabbathown--as cited above--is shown to coincide with the 'ECHAD-to-the-chodesh'). Thus, instead of a generic meaning of Sabbath (as only a time of special rest)--the originally understood definition of the two terms Shabbath and Shabbathown seems to very simply refer to specific quarter-phases of the lunar cycle (perhaps to opposite quarters).

A special time for the renewal of the Sabbaths--if it did exist as a feature of the ancient calendar--is indicated to have been celebrated as a time of assembly. 

An example of this can be recited from the Book of Leviticus (in reference to the times of assembly). This book uses a unique term: 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' in association with these fixed-times of special assembly (or mowed):

"……..Six days shall work be done; [otherwise], the Seventh Day Shabbath-Shabbathown [require] sacred assembly…". (Interlinear NIV Hebrew-English Old Testament, Leviticus 23:3)

This double usage of the two nouns: 'Shabbath' and 'Shabbathown' is somewhat unusual, and is used six additional times in the Hebrew Bible as follows:

Exodus 16:23 'Shabbathown-Shabbath' is holy to Jehovah…

Exodus 31:15 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' is holy to Jehovah; …

Exodus 35:2 … holy 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' to Jehovah; …

Leviticus 16:31 it is to you 'Shabbath-Shabbathown', …

Leviticus 23:32 It is 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' to you…

Leviticus 25:4 and in the seventh year 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' is to the land…

From amid all of the biblical passages which use the double noun 'Shabbath-Shabbathown', it is of peculiar interest that in a single instance (Exodus 16:23) the order of the two nouns is reversed:

"...[after] the fifteenth day of the second month ... [for six days] they gathered [food. Moses] said unto them... To morrow is 'Shabbathown-Shabbath'...". (Exodus 16:1-23).

Notice carefully, that in the respective single instance (as quoted above) that a Sabbath interval is mentioned to have occurred in the second half of the lunar-month cycle. 

Ultimately, it can be rather well understood that the interval of 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' probably does relate to the lunar-period, and this term specifically refers to the half-lunar-cycle. 

SHABBATH + SJABBATHOWN = one-half of a lunar cycle (to its opposite reverse)

The biblical usage of 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' seems to encompass the specific definition of an entire half-month cycle. The order of the nouns may indicate the order of the day count (whether from sunset of from sunrise). 

It is possible that the term Shabbathown connotes plural Sabbaths (or extended Sabbath time), as it may refer to, or may additionally refer to, the indicated 'ECHAD' interval (as cited above).

A Calendar Of Weeks

The biblically indicated cycle of Sabbath weeks (Shabbath-Chodesh cycle) seems to be significant as an astronomical definition, both as an interface with the lunar-cycle, as well as an interface with the solar circle, or the annual cycle (as cited in Chapter One). 

The location of the Passover and the Feast-Of-Unleavened-Bread seems to be identifiable amid a cycle of lunar weeks (as documented). 

Other significant festivals can also be identified from within the biblical record.

Like the Passover, all the remaining festivals seem to be identifiable within a cycle of lunar-based weeks. 

One particular biblical festival--the Day of Atonements--does not initially seem to belong within the cycle of weeks.

Interestingly, in two diverse passages of scripture, the Day of the Atonements is stated to have occurred relative to 'Shabbath-Shabbathown', and the reference of this date to 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' seems to point to its existence as a date which does belong amid the weekly cycle.

The association between the Day of Atonements and the Sabbath cycle is seemingly related to an early used method of lunar-calendar intercalation (where intercalation was probably performed twice in 3 years, as explained in Chapters 4 and 5). 

A glimpse of this early used method of intercalation is perhaps mirrored in the early Mesopotamian calendars: 

"The year attested in Kultepe texts... every three years [required] the insertion of 15... days called shapattum... Throughout the [3 years] Assyrians counted ten-day periods ... For three years, these [counts] ran congruently with the months and the years. Then, after the insertion of a 15-day shapattum period, they overlapped from one month into the next, returning to congruency with the months after the next shapattum...." (From Britannica, 1972, Calendar, Babylonian And Assyrian Calendars). 

The Kultepe Calendar, as cited, may represent a model which was used in other early Semite calendars. (In the Kultepe Calendar, it is apparent that a three-year cycle was once counted, and also a half-month cycle was intercalated). 

According to the Kultepe method or model of counting three years, it seems that the orientation of the month (if it was a lunar month, or even if it was a solar month) would have become reversed to the alternate half of the month upon the intercalation of each half-month count (the shapattum or 15-day period). 

It is interesting to take into account that in certain early calendars the cited half-month interval (shapattum) would always have occurred at a time of 'TEN'. The count of 'TEN' ultimately terminated at the time of the intercalated half-month (shapattum)--where the half-month was either overlapped, or exactly coincided with 'TEN', on an alternating basis). Thus, the terminal of the monthly count ultimately signified the intercalary time of a shapattum (which heralded a unique time of completion/renewal).

Here it seems of related significance that a peculiar 'TEN' , specifically relative to the a 3-year cycle, can be located in the Hebrew Bible:

"At the end (or 'qetseh') of three years you shall bring forth all the tithe of your increase…" (De. 14:28).

"When you have make an end of tithing ['TEN'] all the tithes of your increase the third year which is the year of tithing ['TEN'] " (De. 26:12).

In returning to the identification of the time of Atonements (and the time of Shabbath-Shabbathown), the biblically described time for this event seems to be at 'TEN'.

Actually, the composite biblical description of this date seemingly indicates a meaning more than just a 'TEN' count. This is partially evident in the fact that the Hebrew Bible uses a special form of 'TEN' relative to computing the date for the Atonments. The Hebrew word consistently used in association with the time for the Atonements is 'AWSOR'. 

In biblical texts, the word 'AWSOR' can be found 16 times (in the original texts), where the respective word is unilaterally translated as the English word 'TEN'. (A similar word is much more frequently translated as also 'ten').

The rather unique form of the word 'TEN', or the 'AWSOR', appears in the construction of a date in 8 total instances. (The Bible Book of Ezekiel has 3 of these 8 instances). Interestingly, 4 of the remaining 8 instances in the Hebrew Bible are exclusively used to describe the date for the 'Day of Atonements' (or an 'AWSOR' at the 7^th month'):

"On 'AWSOR' at the seventh month is the Day of Atonements….It shall be unto you a 'Shabbath Shabbathown'." (Leviticus 23:27)

The consistency of the syntactical usage of the unique word 'AWSOR' indicates that this word (when used as a date) almost undoubtedly equates to some kind of a special calendar term (perhaps not exactly a numeric quantity). 

The calendar term ('the AWSOR') is invariably used as a noun (without ever being coupled with other nouns such as 'day' or 'month'.

It is especially unusual that the calendar term, the 'AWSOR', is seemingly relative to the coincidence of the 50^th year of the Jubilee Calendar.

"And you shall number 7 Sabbaths of years unto you, 7 times 7 years; and the space of 7 Sabbaths of years shall be unto you 49 years. Then shall you cause the trumpet 'loud of sound' on the 'aswor' at the seventh month in the Day of Atonements shall you make the trumpet sound throughout all your land." (Leviticus 25:8-9).

Thus, it is rather evident that an original celebration of a special event at the 'AWSOR' (a 'Shabbath-Shabbathown' at the seventh month) probably was in association with a unique intermission interval between the 6^th and 7^th month (signifying termination and renewal at the time of 'TEN'). 

In yet one other passage of scripture, there is possible confusion concerning the biblical usage of a calendar of weeks. Essentially, in the account of the flood in the time of Noah, it can be inferred that the ancient calendar might have contained 30 days per-month--where a peculiar count of 150 days extends between the 17^th day of the second month, and the 17^th day of the seventh month. 

Biblical passages (as well as the Book of Jubilees) show the date for the beginning of the great flood: 

"And it came to pass after seven days…in the second month the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the great fountains of the deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened. And the rain was upon the earth…" (Gen. 7:10-12).

The number: seventeen also shows up in a subsequent date of the flood account: 

"And the ark rested in the seventh chodesh, on the seventeenth day of the chodesh upon the mountains of Ararat." (Gen. 8:4). 

It is interesting to note that Josephus, the Jewish historian, records the beginning of the flood as occurring in the second month and the twenty-seventh day, and not on the seventeenth (Antiquities 1:3:3). The Josephus account also records the ark coming to rest in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month (the same as in Genesis 8:4). 

The number: twenty-seven is also recorded by Genesis as the final date of the flood account: "And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month was the earth dried." (Gen. 8:14). (Josephus does not give a final date). Here it is interesting to note that the Book of Jubilees differs slightly in that "…on the seventeenth day in the second month the earth was dry", and then "… on the twenty-seventh thereof he opened the ark, and sent forth from it beasts, and cattle, and birds, and every moving thing." 

An interesting additional date: the second month and the seventeenth day, can be located in Jubilees 3:17-18, where: "… And after the completion of the seven years, which he [Adam and Eve] had completed there [in Eden], seven years exactly, and in the second month, on the seventeenth day (of the month), the serpent came...". Here the location of this interesting date immediately follows "seven years exactly". 

It is then significant--and oddly so--that the numbers: seventeen, and: twenty-seven show up throughout all of the historical accounts of Noah's flood (Genesis, Jubilees, and Josephus). 

Among this array of similar numbers it is not completely logical that the earth dried abruptly on the twenty-seventh (or seventeenth?) day of the month (especially following an extremely long wet spell). It is obvious that the twenty-seventh (or seventeenth?) day of the chodesh (or renewal) is significant as a specific calendar boundary (not as an instantaneous dry spell--which makes no sense). 

Because the number seven is common throughout all of the number dates for the flood account (17, 17, and 27 in Genesis; and 27, 17 in Josephus, and 17, 27, 17 in Jubilees), then it is possible that the numbers require a better modern understanding… and specifically, in the context of the calendar to which they apply. 

Ultimately, it is not fully logical to attempt to interpret a 30-day month from these first two numbers (which are either 17 or 27 depending upon which account is used).

One very reasonable explanation for the indicated 30-day month can perhaps be learned from certain early astronomers (who are indicated to have used intercalation in association with normalized month counts to track-time with). In general, the count of the lunar month was truncated to a count of 28 (as shown on Scroll 4Q317, and as shown on other Scrolls). It appears that another popular normalized lunar-month count was used throughout the ancient Middle East. The use of this count involved rounding- up the lunar month to a count of 30. (For additional information of this normalized month count, refer to Appendix B).

The account of the flood also has an extremely strange calendar term: 'forty days and forty nights':

1. "And the Lord said unto Noah…. For yet seven days and I will cause it to rain on the earth forty days and forty nights…" (Gen. 7:1-4). 

2. "And it came to pass after seven days, that the flood waters were upon the earth…And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights…" (Gen. 7:10-12).

3. "And it came to pass at the end of forty days that Noah opened the window of the ark which he made…And he stayed yet other seven days …" (Gen. 8:6-10). 

The interesting context (seven days plus forty days and forty nights, and forty days plus seven days) must mean that the term: forty days and forty nights has some association to a period of 'seven days'. It is very clear that the term: forty days and forty nights is in direct chronological alignment with a period of seven days (both before and after). But exactly why, and how, could this alignment with seven days be possible? 

To possibly improve the definition of the term: forty days and nights, notice carefully that this expression refers to a time interval which exceeds, or is greater than a literal period of forty days. This is evident in Genesis 7:10 through Genesis 8:6 where the actual end of the 'forty-day' period seems to traverses a quite lengthy interval: "And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights…and the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days…and it came to pass at the end of [the] forty days that Noah… sent forth a dove…". (The focus here is that in the complete context of the ancient account, the archaic term: forty days and forty nights, refers to a time interval which either occurs more than one time, or exceeds a literal forty days. This is evident between the beginning date and the ending date which contains a time interval of at least 150 days.) 

Then the archaic expression: forty days and forty nights, can not be understood to be the time span for the duration of the flood. Instead, the strange term: arbaiym (or forty) days seems to indicate that the calendar of the flood contained a significant boundary or boundaries at that time interval. 

Ultimately, it is not illogical to interpret the usage of a calendar of weeks throughout the account of the flood, where a span of 7 days is cited (both at the beginning as well as after the flood).

It is of further interest to speculate that the record of the great flood might have been recorded (perhaps partially) in terms of pentecontads. For example, it seems that a span of three pentecontads, or a recorded period of 150 days, applies to an initial period of the waters prevailing, or increasing.

"… the waters prevailed [gabar, or to be stronger] and were increased greatly… and the waters prevailed [gabar] exceedingly … and the waters prevailed [gabar] upon the earth an hundred and fifty days" (Gen. 7:18,19,24). 

The account seems to also refer to a possible additional 150 day period when the waters were receding:

"…and God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the water asswaged [shakak, or appease]: The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped and the rain from heaven was restrained: And the water returned [shuwb] from off the earth continually: and after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated [chacer, or lessened] (Gen. 8:1-3).

Then, at what might have been the seventh pentecontad, the ark rested on the mountains of Ararat (Genesis 8:4). This date occurred 150 days, or three pentecontad cycles after the waters began to abate. It is then logical (from a chronological standpoint) that throughout the first 150 days, or for three pentecontads, that the waters were increasing; and throughout a subsequent period of three pentecontads that the waters were decreasing. Then at the seventh pentecontad the ark rested on the mountains. The total number of elapsed pentecontad cycles adds up to the seventh pentecontad (three pentecontads plus three pentecontads extends to the seventh pentecontad). 

For possible verification of this respective interpretation, refer to the Septuagint Version of Genesis 8:4 which shows two forms of the word hebdoma. What is of particular interest is that the two respective forms of the word 'seven' appear in tandem, or in duet ('ebdomw ebdomh'). This double usage in the Septuagint implies that (instead of 7^th chodesh 17^th day) the original understanding of this unique date was that the ark rested at a Renewal of '7-times-7'--or at the respective pentecontad boundary (following a three pentecontad period of the waters decreasing).

Some scholars interpret a specific style of dating amid biblical texts. This different format is sometimes referred to as the priestly style of dating (Calendars In The Dead Sea Scrolls, Vanderkam). 

The priestly format is seemingly reflected in Genesis Chapter 8:5 where: "the tenth, on the 'ONE' of the Renewal" (the tops of the mountains were seen). 

This same distinct style is also recognizable in Chapter 8:13: "… at the first [or beginning] in the ' ONE ' of the chodesh [or renewal] …[and on this date] Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dry".

Interestingly, both of these peculiar dates reveal lunar dating amid a calendar which also indicates the usage of a cycle of weeks--or at least a calendar which contained sequences of seven-days. (Refer to the Book Of Geneses, Chapters7:1-4; 7:10-12; and 8:6-10).

It is interesting to find more than one version of a calendar of weeks in use among the various Semite societies. 

One of the most interesting of these calendars was a calendar of seven weeks. The usage of a unique calendar of seven-weeks (periodically interrupted by a fiftieth day) can be found in the far distance of history (all the way from the Bronze Age). 

Following the First Temple Era, the observance of a cycle of seven-weeks can be more clearly identified from among: (1) The Babylonian cultures; (2) Possibly Jewish groups in exile; and--later-on--(3) Jewish sects and non-traditional groups. 

Even in the modern era, the Falasha Jews continue to count a seven-weeks cycle, and present-day Jews and Christians commemorate a cycle of seven-weeks each Spring to celebrate the of Feast-Of-Firstfruits or Pentecost.

The Babylonian Culture And Jewish Sects

The specific details of the usage of the Pentecontad Calendar is only implicitly clear in the historical record, but nevertheless the ancient usage of a calendar consisting of seven-weeks segments isn't difficult to find amid the records of Semitic peoples.

"The Babylonian … seven-day week.. is the week with which we are so well acquainted…this was the 7^th, 14^th, 21^st, and 28^th days of every [lunar] month…Of special interest in connection with the seven-day week is the 19^th of the month, which was a 'week of weeks' from the first day of the preceding month." (Encyclopedia Of Religion And Ethics By Hastings, Sabbath: Babylonian). 

"… the Babylonian sabattu and the Hebrew sabbath, sprang from a common [Semite] source.… this calendar has been aptly designated as the pentecontad calendar because of the significant role which the number 50 played in it. Its basic unit of time-reckoning was the week of seven days. Its secondary time unit was the period of fifty days, consisting of seven weeks--i.e. seven times seven days--plus one additional day, a day which stood outside the week and which was known and celebrated as 'atsrah', a festival of conclusion or termination--termination, of course, of the pentecontad or fifty-day period. The year of this calendar consisted of seven pentecontads …" (Interpreters Dictionary: Sabbaths).

An interesting seven weeks cycle (and fiftieth day) can even be located within biblical texts. It's description may be found in the Bible Book of Leviticus, Chapter 23:15,16 (and in the Bible Book of Numbers, Chapter 28:26): 

"…and you shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering: seven sabbaths shall be complete: even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days…". 

Based upon the scriptural definition of a unique count of seven weeks, or the count of fifty days, most modern Jews and Christians continue to commemorate a festival of Pentecost in the Spring of each annual cycle.

Among the writings of the Jews in exile an interesting count of seven-weeks (with an additional day) is also evident. 

For example, the Apocryphal Book of Tobit 1:21 directly mentions a date as occurring: "before '50' days" (refer to Chapter 1:21); and another passage of this book references: "the feast of the seven weeks" (refer to Chapter 2:1).

Also, the Apocryphal Book of Judith contains four extremely unique dates: …"the day before the sabbath and the sabbath and the day before the new Moon and the new Moon" (refer to Chapter 8:6).

Possible additional evidence of this observance can be found in the words of Sirach: "… the Moon gives the sign for the festival" (Chapter 43:7); and the first book of Maccabees states: "let all the festivals and sabbaths and new Moons ….be days of exemption"(Chapter 10:34); while the second book of Maccabees references: "the festival of weeks" (Chapter 12:3).

The observance of seven weeks (in a loop) can be found among Jewish sects and non-traditional groups from among the writings of the Dead Sea Scrolls (from 200 BCE to the 100 CE). 

It is important to note that certain of the sects seem to have counted a circuit of 49 days (not 49 plus 1 day) as further shown below.

An example of Jewish sects observing this interesting seven-weeks calendar can be found in the Temple Scroll (which was discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls). This document describes a series of three interesting festivals all commemorated exactly seven weeks apart.

"…You shall count--seven complete Sabbaths from the day of your bringing the sheaf of [the wave-offering. You shall c]ount until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. You shall count [fifty] days. You shall bring a new grain-offering….it is the feast of Weeks and the feast of Firstfruits, an eterna[l] memorial.

….You [shall count] seven weeks from the day when you bring the new grain-offering… seven full Sabbaths [shall elapse un]til you have counted fifty days to the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. [You] shall [bring] new wine for a drink-offering…

….[You sha]ll count from that day seven weeks, seven times (seven days), forty-nine days; there shall be seven full Sabbaths; until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath you shall count fifty days. You shall then offer new oil…"

(From the Temple Scroll--11QT=11Q19, 20, 4Q365a--XVIII-XXI. The English translation--as shown--was borrowed from The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls In English, by Geza Vermes). 

The Jewish/Greek writer Philo graphically described the usage of a seven-weeks calendar (with fiftieth day) among some of the Jewish sects. (This ancient philosopher was contemporary, or lived at the same period of history during which Jesus Christ lived).

Philo described the so called: 'Therapeutae', or 'Healers', or 'Attendants', who were a group of Jews residing near Alexandria, Egypt. What is known of this movement comes from a treatise: de Vita Contemplativa (The Contemplative Life) written around 30 AD.

According to Philo, this group was part of a movement away from the corruption of city living. 

…"They are Jewish recluses who reside in simple huts, at a short and suitable distance from one another. Each hut has a sacred chamber reserved for their sacred books by means of which religion and sound knowledge grow together into a perfect whole. After praying at dawn, they devote the day to meditation upon the Scriptures; these include writing or commentaries drawn up by the ancient founder of their sect…Prayers at sunset close the day. Such is the life in each hut. On the seventh day the various members meet for common worship; they arrange themselves according to age, sitting on the ground with the right hand between the chest and the chin, but the left tucked down along the flank. The senior recluse then delivers an address to which all listen in silence, merely nodding assent. A partition, ten or twelve feet high, separates the men from the women, so that the latter can hear the speaker without being seen by the male recluses.

…The seventh day is their day for relaxation. On the other days no one eats before sunset, and some go fasting almost entirely for three or even six days, in their contemplative raptures. But all use oil and on the seventh day all propitiate the mistresses hunger and thirst, which nature has set over mortal creatures; the diet is simply water and cheap bread, flavored with salt, and occasionally supplemented by hyssop. 

…Once every seven weeks they assemble for their supreme festival, which the number 50 has had assigned to it, robed in white and with looks of serious joy. At a given sign from one of their leaders they arrange themselves in ranks, raising eyes and hands to heaven ('their hands because they are pure from unjust gains, being stained by no pretense of money-making') and praying for a blessing on the festival. Then, the senior members recline, in order of seniority, upon their cheap, rough couches; on the left side of the room the women also recline. The younger novices wait upon the older members, for the Therapeutae decline to be served by slaves; they deem any possession of servants whatever to be contrary to nature, which makes all alike free at birth. It is not a banquet of luxuries; no wine, only cold water, heated for those who are delicate; no meat--for the Therapeutae are vegetarians, living on nothing but bread and salt, with hyssop for the more delicate palates, the hyssop being added out of reverence for the holy table of offering in the sacred vestibule of the Temple, to signify that the Therapeutae are too humble to emulate the unleavened bread reserved for the priests. But before this Spartan meal is eaten, a quiet president. The rest listen in breathless silence; but, if the speaker does not make his meaning clear, they are allowed to indicate their perplexity by a slight movement of the head and a right-hand finger. When he is considered to have spoken long enough, all clap their hands three times. A hymn then follows, sometimes composed in honor of God by the singer either a new one which he has made himself, or some old one of the poets that were long ago. Each member has to sing a hymn in rotation, while the rest join in the chorus. Only after this religious service of an address and praise--does the banquet proceed.

…The final act of the festival is the famous 'all-night celebration' of a sacred singing dance by men and women in two choruses each headed by a chosen leader. Each of the choirs, the male and the female, begins by singing and dancing apart, partly in unison, partly in antiphonal measures of various metres, as if it were a Bacchic festival in which they had drunk deep of the divine love. Then, both unite to imitate the choral songs of Moses and Miriam at the Red Sea…It is a thrilling performance, this choric dance and exulting symphony: but the end and aim of it all is holiness…

…Such says Philo, is the method of life practiced by these true citizens of heaven and of the universe." … (From Therapeutae, Encyclopedia Of Religion And Ethics By Hastings). 

It is extremely significant that in association with the observance of the weekly Sabbath: "…Once every seven weeks they assemble for their supreme festival, which the number 50 has had assigned to it…. ".

It is also very interesting that: "… the Therapeutae are too humble to emulate the unleavened bread reserved for the priests… [at the Temple]…" and this perhaps means that this Jewish movement--unlike some of the other splinter groups--highly reverenced the Jerusalem Temple. 

Miscellaneous Pentecontad Usage 

In one of the calendars--found among the Dead Sea Scrolls--it is apparent that a fixed count of 52 weeks, or 364 days, was carefully counted in each annual cycle. 

The usage of this non-lunar based calendar possibly evolved from out of astronomical information contained in the ancient Book of Jubilees (not a Bible Book):

"And God appointed the Sun to be a great sign on the Earth for days and for sabbaths and for months and for feasts and for years and for sabbaths of years and for jubilees and for all seasons of the years…". (From the Book Of Jubilees, Chapter 2:9-10; as translated by R.H. Charles). 

The original intent of this ancient document seems to have been that the orientation of the annual circuit was important for determining the subsequent sabbaths, months, and feasts, etc. 

According to this interesting ancient document, it was the Sun (not the Moon) that determined when the year should begin. 

Later-on, as is seemingly evident from certain of the Dead Sea Scrolls, certain among the sects devised what appears to be a strictly solar-based calendar. This calendar was largely based upon the astronomical fact that 364 days (or approximately one annual cycle) is divisible by seven days. In other words: 52 weeks is equal to 364 days).

This calendar was based upon a fixed count of 7-day cycles, or exactly 52 weeks in each annual cycle, and has a striking similarity to the modern hebdomadal week.

In this regard, the popularity of a continuous seven-day week among certain of the Jewish sects apparently had no direct connection to the Roman seven-day week (which was based upon a cycle of the planets). Essentially, the usage of a solar-based calendar of weeks (among some of the non-traditional groups) seems to have predated the Roman seven-day week.

By reading between the lines of the Book of Jubilees, it is easy to recognize the ultimate adoption of this 52 week calendar: 

"[Angels placed the seasons] on the heavenly tablets, each had thirteen weeks; from one to another (passed) their memorial, from the first to the second, and from the second to the third, and from the third to the fourth. And all the days of the commandment will be two and fifty weeks of days, and (these will make) the entire year complete. Thus it is engraven and ordained on the heavenly tablets. And there is no neglecting (this commandment) for a single year or from year to year. And command thou the children of Israel that they observe the years according to this reckoning-- three hundred and sixty-four days, and (these) will constitute a complete year, and they will not disturb its time from its days and from its feasts; for everything will fall out in them according to their testimony, and they will not leave out any day nor disturb any feasts. But if they do neglect and do not observe them according to His commandment, then they will disturb all their seasons and the years will be dislodged from this (order), [and they will disturb the seasons and the years will be dislodged] and they will neglect their ordinances. And all the children of Israel will forget and will not find the path of the years, and will forget the new moons, and seasons, and sabbaths and they will go wrong as to all the order of the years. For I know and from henceforth will I declare it unto thee, and it is not of my own devising; for the book (lies) written before me, and on the heavenly tablets the division of days is ordained, lest they forget the feasts of the covenant and walk according to the feasts of the Gentiles after their error and after their ignorance. For there will be those who will assuredly make observations of the Moon--how (it) disturbs the seasons and comes in from year to year ten days too soon. For this reason the years will come upon them when they will disturb (the order), and make an abominable (day) the day of testimony, and an unclean day a feast day, and they will confound all the days, the holy with the unclean, and the unclean day with the holy; for they will go wrong as to the months and sabbaths and feasts and jubilees. For this reason I command and testify to thee that thou mayst testify to them; for after thy death thy children will disturb (them), so that they will not make the year three hundred and sixty-four days only, and for this reason they will go wrong as to the new moons and seasons and sabbaths and festivals…" (From the Book Of Jubilees, Chapter 6:15-38; as translated by R.H. Charles).

Some of the Qumran Scrolls show that this interesting fifty-two week calendar also included the special count of a seven weeks cycle. This seven-weeks count was used to locate a sequence of single-day festivals as follows:

On the twenty-sixth day of the first solar based month a barley harvest festival was observed.

Seven calendar weeks past the barley harvest festival (occurring on the day immediately following the Sabbath Day on the fifteenth day of the third solar based month) a festival of first-grain harvest was observed); 

Seven calendar weeks from the festival of the first grain harvest (occurring on the day immediately following the Sabbath Day on the third day of the fifth solar based month) a festival of new-wine was observed); 

Seven calendar weeks from the festival of new wine (occurring on the day immediately following the Sabbath Day on the twenty-second day of the sixth solar month) a festival of new-oil was observed). 

Here, it is interesting to note that throughout this calendar of straight running weeks (52 weeks per year) not one of the seventh-week festival days (or 'fiftieth' day) was skipped over (as would be indicated in a lunar based progression of weeks). Essentially, it appears that the specific definition of a 50^th day was omitted from this calendar, as also was the specific count of a 50^th year omitted from the jubilee count.

(For further information of seven-week festivals among a calendar of 52 weeks, refer to the following scrolls: 4Q325, 4Q326, 4Q327, 4Q394. English translations of these scrolls can be found in: Dead Sea Scrolls A New Translation, by Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook.)

It is remarkable that even in modern times the Falasha Jews--a tribe of Sabbath practicing peoples (discovered in the African country of Ethiopia) still observe a continuous cycle of seven weeks… and within a strictly hebdomadal calendar. According to the centuries-old practices of this group, the Sabbaths are divided into seven-week cycles. A prayer is recited for each of the respective Sabbaths. The seventh Sabbath (Legata Sanbat) is uniquely special and includes additional prayers, festivities, and a sanctification service. (For additional information, refer to on-line web-sites which feature current information on Falasha Jews).

A Widely Used Pentecost, Or The Eighth Day

It of related interest that--even from the farthest reaches of history--the date of Pentecost is unilaterally referred to as the 'atsrah':

"… the Babylonian sabattu and the Hebrew sabbath, sprang from a common [Semite] source.… this calendar has been aptly designated as the pentecontad calendar because of the significant role which the number 50 played in it. Its basic unit of time-reckoning was the week of seven days. Its secondary time unit was the period of fifty days, consisting of seven weeks--i.e. seven times seven days--plus one additional day, a day which stood outside the week and which was known and celebrated as 'atsrah', a festival of conclusion or termination--termination, of course, of the pentecontad or fifty-day period. The year of this calendar consisted of seven pentecontads …" (Interpreters Dictionary: Sabbaths).

The unique celebration of the date of Pentecost (celebrated at the 'atsrah') can also be found among Jews under the Second Temple (as more fully shown in Chapter Two). 

This referral between the reoccurring date of Pentecost and the 'atsrah' was also made by the Jewish priest-historian, Josephus, as follows:

"... the first-fruits...[must be offered toward the beginning of the year]… after this it is that they may publicly or privately reap their harvest… When a week of weeks has passed over after this sacrifice, (which weeks contain forty and nine days,) on the fiftieth day, which is Pentecost, but is called by the Hebrews Asartha, which signifies Pentecost, they bring to God... [burnt offerings]… nor is there anyone of the [subsequent pentecontad] festivals but in it they offer burnt-offerings … (Antiquities, Book 3, Chapter 9,5-7). [The comments in brackets have been inserted into the quoted text to highlight the probable meaning].

This special celebration of Pentecost, at the time of 'atsrah', can even be recognized from Jewish documents written in the Middle Ages:

"Originally an agricultural festival marking the wheat harvest, Shavuot commemorates the revelation of the Torah at Sinai. Shavuot ("weeks") takes its name from the seven weeks of grain harvest... Greek-speaking Jews called it pentekoste, meaning "the fiftieth" day after the sheaf offering. In rabbinic literature, Shavuot is called atzeret ("cessation, conclusion"), perhaps because the cessation of work is one of its distinctive features...." (britannia.com: Middle East religion).

Here, it may be of related significance that a biblically described Feast-Of-Tabernacles (also a lunar-based festival) is described to have terminated on an Eighth Day (also the'atsrah' or 'atsereth'):

"Seven days ye bring near a fire-offering to Jehovah, on the Eighth Day ye have a holy convocation, and ye have brought near a fire-offering to Jehovah; it is [the] 'atsereth', ye do no servile work." (YLT text of Leviticus 23:36).

"On the Eighth Day [is the] 'atsereth' ye have, ye do no servile work" (YLT text of Numbers 29:35).

".. on the Eighth Day [was the] 'atsereth', because the dedication of the altar they have made seven days, and the feast seven days." (YLT text of 2 Chronicles 7:9).

"... they make a feast seven days, and on the Eighth Day [was the] 'atsereth' according to the ordinance." (YLT Version of Nehemiah 8:18).

For additional information which indicates that the date for the Feast-Of-Tabernacles did probably occur at a pentecontad boundary, refer to subsequent sections.

Weeks And Sabbaths

During the Second-Temple Era, it appears that the weekly cycle had more than a single interpretation, or more than one meaning (or application).

The unit of the week was occasionally used for astronomical purposes, where it was seemingly used as a standard unit of time-measure. Certain of the Sea Scrolls show that the 7-day unit was used to define the length of the season (13 weeks, or 91 days). The week-unit was also used to define the annual cycle (52 weeks, or 364 days), and to define other spans of time. 

A good example of the usage of the week (as a unit of time measurement) can be recited from The Book Of Jubilees (not a book in the canonized Bible) as follows: 

" And all the days... will be two and fifty weeks of days, and (these will make) the entire year complete [364 days] …" (from Chapter 6, translated by R.H. Charles).

In the cited quote, the expression 'weeks of days' seems to qualify the usage of the week (as pertaining to a what appears to be time-span of running days, where 52 weeks of days is ultimately equal to 364 days). 

A similar span of running days (expressed in weeks) can also be found in the surviving versions of the Books of Enoch (also not in the canonized Bible):

"... one hundred and seventy-seven days... reckoned according to weeks [are equal to] twenty-five (weeks) and two days." (Chapter 79:4-5).

An important usage of the unit of the week was for religious purposes... and specifically for determining the time of the Sabbath.

Here, it is pertinent to point out--unlike weeks of days--Second-Temple history seems to show that a fuller count of the week was used (on the part of mainstream Jewish society) in determining the time of the weekly Sabbath. 

This fuller count of the Sabbath week is indicated to have been lunar-based (as further shown below). 

The count of the full-week can seemingly be recognized through the Second-Temple's formal count of the lunar cycle--where the lunar cycle was once counted in segments of 7 + 7 + ½ + 7 + 7 + ½ days (as previously documented). 

The resulting formal count of 4 full-week-units (across 29 total days) would have inherently resulted in the length of 1 full-week as being equal to the length of 29 days divided into 4 equal segments. 

Using this formal definition as equating to a specially counted full week, it is can be inferred that early priest-astronomers uniquely used a full week count to define the Pentecost cycle.

The implied usage of a 'full' and 'complete' (or perfect) count of the week is made in the original language of the Bible Book of Leviticus:

"From the day after the Sabbath... count off seven full weeks. Count off fifty days up to the day after the seventh Sabbath... ". (NIV text of Leviticus 23: 15-16). 

The Hebrew word used in Leviticus, Chapter 23: 15 to describe this 'full' count of weeks is: 'tamiym'. In Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, this word (an adjective) is reference number 8549, which means: complete, whole, entire, sound.

In translating this passage, the Interlinear NIV Hebrew-English Old Testament (by Kohlenberger) uses this expression:

"…7 weeks full-ones they must be…" (extracted from verse 15)

Josephus (of the First Century) duplicates the Leviticus information and seems to additionally show that this full weeks count (which contained the 50^th day) was exactly equivalent to the religiously observed Sabbath week:

"… When [seven weeks have] passed... on the fiftieth day… they bring to God [offerings]… [On each of the seven weeks, unleavened bread was]... brought into the holy place on the morning of the Sabbath, and set upon the holy table… and there... remained till another Sabbath…" (Antiquities, Book 3, Chapter 9,5-7). [Note that bracketed comments have been inserted into the quote to help highlight the original meaning].

The distinction of a fully counted Sabbath week (as shown in Leviticus) was seemingly recognized in the Hagigah Tractate (section 17a) of The Babylonian Talmud--where in a note to that section, the translator, Rabbi Abrahams stated,

" . . . the Sadducees [a Jewish sect which flourished in and before the First Century] . . . understood the word 'Sabbath' in Leviticus. 23:11,15 literally… ".

Note that the original language of the Leviticus, Chapter 23, account describes a 'full' count of the seven Sabbaths (as noted above). The 'full' Sabbath count would have been relative to a count of lunar-phases (seven of which encompassed Pentecost). 

A full Sabbath count is likewise indicated by The Temple Scroll as follows:

"…You shall count--seven COMPLETE Sabbaths from the day of your bringing the sheaf of [the wave-offering. You shall c]ount until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. You shall count [fifty] days. You shall bring a new grain-offering….it is the 'feast of weeks' and the 'feast of firstfruits', an eterna[l] memorial... seven weeks [shall elapse] from the day [of] the new grain-offering… seven FULL Sabbaths [shall elapse un]til you have counted fifty days to the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. [You] shall [bring] new wine for a drink-offering… [You sha]ll count from that day [for the new-wine offering] seven weeks, seven times (seven days), forty-nine days; there shall be seven FULL Sabbaths; until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath you shall count fifty days. You shall then offer new oil…". (From the Temple Scroll--11QT=11Q19, 20, 4Q365a--XVIII-XXI. The English translation--as shown--was borrowed from The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls In English, by Geza Vermes).

It seems to be significant that the Temple Scroll (as quoted above) in three instances shows a unique descriptor for the Sabbath week ('complete', 'full', and 'full'). This descriptor qualifies the time span as being a full (or complete) count. The scroll remarkably shows a chronological run of 21 Sabbaths (or more than five months). Throughout this time-span, the full (or complete) count of Sabbaths is consistently used. 

In the time-frame closer to the Second Temple, it seems important to recognize that the expression 'weeks of days' is probably not completely synonymous with the religiously observed Sabbath week. (The latter was probably determined in using the 'full' count, as cited above).

Ultimately, it seems that a difference between the full count of the religiously observed Sabbath cycle (which included the full count of Pentecost) and a running count of weeks (or 'weeks-of-days') was understood throughout the Second Temple Era. 

A Count Of Weeks And The Harvest Cycle

Jewish history indicates that the harvest was scheduled according to formal seven-weeks cycles (as outlined in Chapter Two). 

It is further evident that this formal seven-weeks harvest schedule was regulated by law (under the Temple). 

Because of the Temple authority, it is logical to believe that a formal harvest schedule (of weeks) was observed by mainstream Jews for centuries on-end.

Josephus, the priest-historian of the First Century, wrote of harvest restrictions which surrounded the pentecontad count as follows:

"... the first-fruits...[must be offered toward the beginning of the year]… after this it is that they may publicly or privately reap their harvest… When a week of weeks has passed over after this sacrifice, (which weeks contain forty and nine days,) on the fiftieth day, which is Pentecost, but is called by the Hebrews Asartha, which signifies Pentecost, they bring to God... [burnt offerings]… nor is there anyone of the [subsequent pentecontad] festivals but in it they offer burnt-offerings … (Antiquities, Book 3, Chapter 9,5-7). [The comments in brackets have been inserted into the quoted text to highlight the original meaning].

Notice from the Josephus information that under the Second Temple the harvest could not be publicly or privately reaped until a formal grain offering was presented. 

Once the reaping commenced, the harvest was seemingly conduced in formal pentecontad (or weekly) segments.

It ultimately seems significant that a pentecontad interface with the annual circuit is alluded to in some of the early Jewish documents.

An example of this annual interface can be recited from the Book Of Jubilees as follows:

" …they should celebrate the festival of weeks during this renewal--once a year--to renew the covenant each and every year…it is the 'festival of weeks' and it is the ' festival of firstfruits'. This festival is twofold and of two kinds…" (Jubilees 6:16-22).

The Book Of Jubilees (as cited) seems to indicate that a special case of the seven weeks festival (perhaps as a double festival day) matched a firstfruits festival (once in the annual cycle).

The Temple Scroll places the firstfruits festival as coinciding with the first of the 50^th day harvest cycles:

"…You shall count--seven complete Sabbaths from the day of your bringing the sheaf of [the wave-offering. You shall c]ount until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. You shall count [fifty] days. You shall bring a new grain-offering….it is the 'feast of weeks' and the 'feast of firstfruits', an eterna[l] memorial... seven weeks [shall elapse] from the day [of] the new grain-offering… seven full Sabbaths [shall elapse un]til you have counted fifty days to the morrow of the seventh Sabbath. [You] shall [bring] new wine for a drink-offering… [You sha]ll count from that day [for the new-wine offering] seven weeks, seven times (seven days), forty-nine days; there shall be seven full Sabbaths; until the morrow of the seventh Sabbath you shall count fifty days. You shall then offer new oil…". (From the Temple Scroll--11QT=11Q19, 20, 4Q365a--XVIII-XXI. The English translation--as shown--was borrowed from The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls In English, by Geza Vermes).

The Temple Scroll (as cited) then shows a repeating count of more than 1 pentecontad (or a total of 3 pentecontad cycles), and it indicates (as documented below) that this repeating seven-weeks count (if it was made as a 'full' count of weeks) could have comprised a wider count of seven-times-seven lunar-weeks... a count which ultimately would have interfaced with the annual circuit. 

For additional information of a biblically described time-circuit of 6 pentecontad cycles, refer to Appendix A.

Here, it is interesting to note (as cited above) that the Temple Scroll actually does insist (in three separate instances) that the count of these 'seven weeks segments' be equal to 'seven full Sabbaths'. 

The Hebrew word used in Leviticus, Chapter 23: 15 to describe this 'full' count of weeks is: 'tamiym'. In Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, this word (an adjective) is reference number 8549, which means: complete, whole, entire, sound. 

If the Temple actually did enforce a repeating count of pentecontads (as a fuller count of lunar-based weeks) then a most astounding additional definition of the annual count becomes apparent. 

It seems that the length of the 'fuller' pentecontad cycle (defined through an astronomical count of 50 days plus the added rates of NM and FM--as described in Chapter Three) can be used to very precisely define the length of 49 lunar quarter-phases. This almost exact equality can be expressed using either one of the following two formulas (each one is quite perfectly valid):

1. (7 'full' pentecontad cycles minus 1 NM interval) is equal to 49 lunar quarter-phases

2. (7 'full' pentecontad cycles minus 1 FM interval) is equal to 49 lunar quarter-phases

Note that 7 'full' pentecontad cycles are (over average time) equal to 362.25000 days, and 49 lunar quarter-phases have a length equal to 361.74973 days. The net difference is then 0.50027 days, or very precisely ½ day (where FM over average time is equal to ½ day, and NM over average time is also equal to ½ day).

Here, it becomes of very special interest that the fuller count of the pentecontad cycle has been documented to have been determined in formal lunar-stage counts. These 14 stage counts are indicated to have alternately required the periodic intervals of FM (or an additional nighttime unit), and NM (or an additional daylight-unit). 

The once used seven-squared counts of days and lunar phases can then be recognized--and amazingly so--to all precisely fit together at the 0.5 day boundary (which logically occurs between daytime and nighttime, or between the reverse). 

Thus, it is fully remarkable (as explicitly and implicitly indicated from a number of Second Temple sources) that the daytime and the nighttime boundary can be used in fixed, formal seven-squared counts. These counts (throughout average time) can ultimately be used to define the precise length of the lunar quarter-phase (or 7.38265 days). This possibility is extremely significant in the regard that the lunar quarter-phase can ultimately be used to define the length of the annual circuit (as previously documented).

These indicated surplus NM and FM counts (if they were actually employed by early priest-astronomers) may mean that the specific order of day and night (or the reverse) was specially accounted-for (perhaps even at the level of the annual cycle):

"… the jubilee year followed seven sabbatical cycles. … A Ugaritic liturgical text specially designed for this phenomenon aims at terminating a sabbatical cycle of privation and ushering in one of fertility by celebrating the birth and triumphal entrance of… Shahar ("Dawn") and Shalim ("Dusk"), whose advent [together] brings an abundance of food and wine.(britannica.com: Middle Eastern religion). 

Thus, as further research needs to bear out, the jubilee cycle is indicated to have once been counted in formal counts of night and day (and the reverse). Two related time-cycles are indicated from these counts as follows: 1. A time-cycle of daytime and nighttime stages to formally represent the lunar month; and: 2. A pentecontad cycle (of seven 'full' lunar-based weeks) to formally subdivide the annual circuit (as described in Chapter Five). 

These two formal cycles are indicated to have perhaps timed-out together at a ceremonious jubilee cycle event (which 'advent brings an abundance of food and wine').

" …they should celebrate... this renewal--once a year--to renew the covenant each and every year…it is the 'festival of weeks' and it is the ' festival of firstfruits'. This festival is twofold and of two kinds…" (Jubilees 6:16-22).

The Seven Year Cycle

In association with the jubilee cycle, biblical texts describe the seventh year (or at least a portion of each seventh year) as a period of time reserved from tilling, sowing, and reaping of crops. 

In the Bible Book of Deuteronomy (Chapter 31:10) a unique intermission or festival period (called the Feast-Of-Tabernacles) is described to occur according to a circuit of seven years. 

As cited in chapters from above, the orbital rates of the Earth-Moon literally do define a seven-year cycle--through the appearance of an extraneous lunar-phase (or X2, which very precisely appears each seventh year in fifty years). (For additional information of X2, refer to Chapter One).

Week-long festivals are described in the Bible as lasting for seven days, but in some instances one special additional day (the 'atsrah') was held. The span of these interesting festivals--perhaps as time-out, or special intermission intervals--seemingly always occurred in alignment with the phases of the Moon.

Notice carefully from the Bible Book of Leviticus (Chapter 23) that not all cases of Tabernacles occur in the seventh year. In certain cases, the feast is indicated to have required burnt offerings and sacrifices.

And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, The... feast of tabernacles [shall be] for seven days unto the LORD. On the first day shall be an holy convocation: ye shall do no servile work therein. Seven days ye shall offer an offering made by fire unto the LORD: on the eighth day shall be an holy convocation unto you; and ye shall offer an offering made by fire unto the LORD: it is atsrah; and ye shall do no servile work therein. [This feast] ye shall proclaim... to offer an offering made by fire unto the LORD, a burnt offering, and a meat offering, a sacrifice, and drink offerings, every thing upon his day. (Leviticus 23:33-37)

Another case of the Feast-Of-Tabernacles is, however, indicted to have occurred at times when the harvest was in storage (as perhaps when the feast might have been periodically held opposite to the harvest season, as possibly astride a periodic half-year intermission interval). Interestingly, this periodic special case is indicated to not require any of the burnt offerings.

Beside [or in addition to] the sabbaths of the LORD, and beside your gifts, and beside all your vows, and beside all your freewill offerings, which ye give unto the LORD. Also... when ye have gathered in the fruit of the land, ye shall keep a feast unto the LORD seven days: on the first day: 'Shabbathown', and on the eighth day: 'Shabbathown'. And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the LORD your God seven days. (Leviticus 23: 38-40).

Here, it seems pertinent to point out that in the case when the harvest was in-storage, or gathered-in the First Day of the feast is described to occur at 'Shabbathown', and the appearance of the Eighth Day is also described to occur at 'Shabbathown'. These special instructions seem to either show that this case of the feast probably straddled a specific quarter-phase of the lunar-cycle, or this case of the feast may have been in-addition to the standard case. Essentially, if the first case lasted for 7 days and the latter case lasted for 7 more days (plus an eighth day), then the latter case would have straddled 15 days (or one-half month). The feast which periodically stretched from Shabbathown to Shabbathown might then have been held for a half-month interval (or for an interval longer than a quarter-month). 

The special case of a half-month festival seems to agree with certain Semite sources which imply that a periodically observed '15 day' festival in observance of an early used Pentecontad Calendar.

It is significant that amid a calendar of lunar weeks that the length of one lunar phase (or 7.38265 days) seems to correspond to biblical described festival periods--where festival periods are indicated to have contained either seven, or eight days. It is significant that the length of the lunar phase corresponds to seven day festivals, and occasionally to an eight day festival (when a special eighth day the 'atsrah' was observed). Thus, it is obvious that an occasional eighth day did actually appear within the ancient calendar (just as a calendar of lunar phases would require).

King Solomon is indicated to have celebrated a festival interval of 7 days plus 7 days, or 14 days. (According to 2 Chronicles 7:9 this time span included the 8^th day--the 'atsrah'). It is seemingly significant that the intercalated rate of a half-moon-cycle (as cited in Chapter 5) seems to correspond to the cited sequence of seven days plus seven days. (Refer also to Gen. 7:10; 8:10-12; and to Scroll 4QOtot).

Seven Weeks And Temple Services 

The Temple sacrifice schedule also seems to mirror an ongoing schedule of seven-weeks (or the pentecontad cycle). 

It seems that special sacrifices were routinely offered in association with the renewal of each seven weeks segment (at 50^th day festivals). 

This renewal feast of the seven weeks is perhaps evident in the Bible Book of Numbers, Chapter 28:26-31--where the 'renewal offering on your weeks' is described: 

"... in the day of the 'bikkuwr' [first ripe], when ye bring a 'chadash' offering [new offering] unto the LORD, after your weeks be out... ye shall offer the burnt offering ... 2 young bullocks, 1 ram, 7 lambs of the first year;

Carefully note that if the burnt offering presented "after your weeks be out"--was routinely offered at each seven weeks segment then a repeating sacrifice schedule very logically follows: 

          Sacrifice Rate For Each Seven-Weeks Interval 
    ___________________________________________________________

      Interval              Sacrifice Rate 
    ___________________     ___________________________________
    Pentecontad Cycle 1     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid 
    Pentecontad Cycle 2     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid 
    Pentecontad Cycle 3     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid 
    Pentecontad Cycle 4     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid 
    Pentecontad Cycle 5     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid 
    Pentecontad Cycle 6     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid 
    Pentecontad Cycle 7     2 Bulls, 1 ram, 7 lambs, 1 kid

Here, it is pertinent to consider that if more than one pentecontad cycle was celebrated, then one of these seven-week renewals would have required a special sacrifice (at the time the first harvest offering was presented. 

This special first harvest offering seems to have been presented at the end of a count of seven weeks, and it was seemingly presented only one-time per year (early in the harvest cycle).

This special first fruits harvest presentation is seemingly described in Leviticus Chapter 23 (verses15-21) where after 'full' seven-weeks, upon day '50' the offering is described to be: 

"……..1 bullock….2 rams…7 lambs …. and 1 kid …" 

The special annual first harvest case, as described in Leviticus Chapter 23, differs from the standard pentecontad offering, as seemingly cited in the Book of Numbers, where 2 bullocks and 1 ram and 7 lambs were routinely required (as diagrammed above). 

If the Leviticus sacrifice rate for the first harvest (offered only once per year) is included with the Numbers sacrifice rate (offered upon the renewal of each 7^th week), then the composite sacrifice schedule should show: 3 bulls, 3 rams, and 14 lambs.

This offering rate seems to be closely verified by the Jewish historian Josephus--who described the first Pentecost festival in the year as celebrated with sacrifices as follows: 

"When a week of weeks has passed over…on the '50th day' …they bring… 
……..3 bullock….2 rams….14 lambs …. and 2 kids …" (Antiquities, Bk.3:10:6)

Notice that Josephus--when describing the first harvest presentation--seemingly does not differentiate between the regular burnt offering rate (for the seven weeks), as shown in Leviticus, but rather shows two combined rates.

In consideration of the two different burnt offering rates as shown in Numbers and in Leviticus, it is logical to conclude that these texts refer to more than one seven-weeks cycle. This detail concerning both sacrificial rates (in overlap) may be indicated from the Josephus' account of the Pentecost celebration (at the first harvest). 

A Formal Cycle Of Seven Weeks

The instructions for determining the date of the first fruits harvest presentation as per Leviticus Chapter 23 (Verses 15-21) contains some interesting wording. The set of instructions for counting the 7 weeks state that the special presentation was to be made after 

"(verse 15) …7 weeks full-ones they must be…". 

The descriptor 'full weeks' seems to imply that this seven weeks count was lunar-based. Thus, in the case of the unique count of seven weeks (running up to the time of the first fruits presentation), the 'full weeks' describe a full Sabbath count. This means that the total amount of elapsed time before the first harvest presentation corresponds to the length of seven lunar phases.

The startling conclusion is that the first harvest presentation occurred upon a full or complete Sabbath count (equal to the length of seven phases). If this count of seven was continued as a count of seven sevens then an entire year of seven pentecontad cycles--or 49 lunar phases would eventually be traversed. 

The Book Of Jubilees, 6:16-22, which seemingly describes a pentecontad cycle in the time of Noah states that:

"He (God) put his bow in the clouds (rainbow) as a sign of the eternal covenant that there would not henceforth be flood waters on the Earth…for this reason …they should celebrate the festival of weeks during this renewal--once a year--to renew the covenant each and every year…it is the 'festival of weeks' and it is 'the festival of firstfruits'. This festival is twofold and of two kinds…" 

This information shows that the harvest presentation, or the special Feast-Of-Firstfruits, occurred upon the Feast-Of-Weeks! It occurred once per year--which would have been once in the reoccurring count of seven pentecontads. 

The Jubilees information seems to mirror other texts which show a special case of the festival of the seven-weeks was celebrated once per year. This celebration is indicated to have required an extra sacrifice in addition to the seventh week sacrifice.

A better understanding of the special case observance of the first festival of the seven-weeks seems to come from Christian Bishop Nazianzen. His early record described a calendar of pentecontads in each annual cycle (presumably seven total pentecontads per year):

"The children of the Hebrews do honor to the number Seven, according to the legislation of Moses ….; I cannot say by what rules of analogy, or in consequence of what power of this number; anyhow they do honor to it. … But this honor which they pay to it is not confined to days alone, but also extends to years. That belonging to days the Sabbath proves, because it is continually observed among them; and in accordance with this the removal of leaven is for that number of days. And that belonging to years is shewn by the seventh year, the year of Release; and it consists not only of Hebdomads ['Sevens'], but of Hebdomads of Hebdomads ['Seven times Seven'], alike in days and years. The Hebdomads of days give birth to Pentecost, a day called holy among them; and those of years to what they call the Jubilee, which also has a release of land, and a manumission of slaves, and a release of possessions bought. For this nation consecrates to God, not only the firstfruits of offspring, or of firstborn, but also those of days and years. Thus the veneration paid to the number Seven gave rise also to the veneration of Pentecost. For seven being multiplied by seven generates fifty all but one day, which we [Christians] borrow from the world to come, at once the Eighth and the first [the renewal day], or rather one and indestructible. For the present sabbatism of our souls can find its cessation there, that a portion [of Sabbath time] may be given to seven and also to eight..." (Oration XLI: On Pentecost, II).] 

This information (which is partially mirrored in Leviticus, Numbers, Antiquities, The Temple Scroll, and Jubilees) tends to indicate that the cycle of weeks may have been distributed according to an annual progression--and that one of the seven-weeks cycles was specially commemorated as a first harvest case. 

Because the annual cycle can be subdivided into one-seventh parts through a count of pentecontads, then each seven-weeks segment (like the Zodiac) remains fixed relative to the seasons throughout average time (to within but a few days). This means that if any one of the pentecontads was counted from the time of say the summer solstice, then year-in and year-out this orientation would reoccur (to within plus or minus one-eighth of one lunar cycle. Over average time this respective orientation would remain stationary (with the summer solstice).

If the first harvest cycle extended for seven weeks (to new grain), and the second harvest cycle extended through seven weeks (to new wine), and the third harvest cycle extended through seven subsequent weeks (to new oil), then seven more weeks would comprise the composite length of 7 lunar months. [Note that 28 lunar-based weeks are equal to 7 lunar months.] 

Here, it seems pertinent to at-least consider that the respective boundary of the fourth pentecontad of the harvest cycle may coincide with the date of a significant Hebrew festival (called the Feast-Of-Tabernacles or the Feast-Of-Booths or the Feast-Of-Ingathering):

Exodus 23:16 [YLT text] [Keep] the Feast of Harvest, the first fruits of thy works which thou sowest in the field; and the Feast of the In-Gathering, in the outgoing of the year, in thy gathering thy works out of the field.

Deuteronomy 16:13 [AV text] Thou shalt observe the feast of tabernacles seven days, after that thou hast gathered in thy corn and thy wine:

Some biblical passages show that the beginning day of the Feast-Of-Tabernacles corresponded with one-whole-day which stood from out of the weekly cycle (or therefore possibly corresponded to a fiftieth day)!

This peculiar detail of a 'ONE-WHOLE-DAY' (and therefore perhaps was a 'fiftieth day') seems to be verifiable from the Bible Book of Ezra as follows:

Ezra 3:4-6 They kept also the feast of tabernacles, as it is written, and offered the daily burnt offerings by number, according to the custom, as the duty of every day required; And afterward [offered] the continual burnt offering, both of the new moons, and of all the set feasts of the LORD that were consecrated, and of every one that willingly offered a freewill offering unto the LORD. From the 'ONE' DAY (or ECHAD DAY) of the seventh month began they to offer burnt offerings unto the LORD…

An additional instance of this 'ONE-WHOLE-DAY' (and consequently, a special single day standing from out of the cycle of weeks, and appearing with the seventh lunar-month) can be recited from the Bible Book of Nehemiah as follows--

[Chapter 8 (AV text)] And Ezra the priest brought the law before the congregation both of men and women, and all that could hear with understanding, upon the 'ONE' DAY (or ECHAD DAY) of the seventh month… This day is holy unto the LORD … And all the people went their way to eat, and to drink, and to send portions, and to make great mirth, because they had understood the words that were declared unto them. Also day by day, from the first (or rishon) day unto the last day, he read in the book of the law of God. And they kept the feast seven days; and on the eighth day was a solemn assembly […or 'atsrah'…], according unto the manner.

Carefully notice that the Ezra and Nehemiah passages--as immediately cited above--both show the beginning of the feast on the 'ECHAD DAY' of the seventh month. Because this identical date is so supplied in both instances, and because the feast is clearly inline with the harvest cycle, it could be that the singular-whole-day was in-line with a seven weeks renewal.

Thus, it could be (using the interpretation of a formal schedule of harvest weeks) that the outline of a fourth pentecontad is identified. This fourth pentecontad may have been specially celebrated in correspondence with the festival of the in-gathering--where the harvest was conducted in formal time-segments of seven weeks. These pentecontad segments are indicated to have been celebrated in the following order: 1. Grain; 2. Wine; and 3. Oil. The indicated fourth pentecontad may have been celebrated as a Festival-Of-In-Gathering--where instead of a one day festival, the seventh month feast lasted for seven, or eight days (or throughout an entire lunar phase).

The indication that the Feast Of Tabernacles occurred in association with a 'ONE-WHOLE-DAY' date (as shown in Ezra and Nehemiah... noted above) is most unusual. Texts from Leviticus detail that this date occurred upon a 15th Day of the seventh month. Essentially, the Leviticus festival was seemingly held at mid-month, and at a different time than was the Ezra-Nehemiah feast.

Here it is pertinent to consider that in an ongoing run of seven-week cycles, the particular sequence of 'New Month + 14 ½ + ONE + 14 ½ + New Month' would routinely occur at the frequency of every seventh month. Thus, amid a run of lunar-based weeks, it is entirely possible that the 15^th Day of the seventh month did also appear in correspondence with a 'ONE-WHOLE-DAY'.

The possibility that a special case of the Feast-Of-Tabernacles might have occurred at the 7^th month of the 7^th year is seemingly evident from an analysis of an early used 'TIMES' count. 

It seems that the official Temple Calendar intercalated two-half-month cycles in each interval of 3 years (as fully detailed in Chapters Four and Five):

A LUNAR-SOLAR CALENDAR (equal to 3.0000 years) **

_______________________________________________________

6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS * 

6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS + 6 NEW_MOONS + _______________________________________________________

* -- Requires an intercalated HLF_MOON at the month Elul 

+ -- Requires an intercalated HLF MOON at the month Adar

** - Requires additional jubilee cycle intercalation (as cited).

Here, it is pertinent to consider that early Semite astronomers are indicated to have used certain rules along with normalized month counts to track-time with. In general, the count of the lunar month was truncated to a count of 28 (as shown on Scroll 4Q317, and as shown on other Scrolls). 

It appears that another popular normalized lunar-month count was used throughout the ancient Middle East. The use of this count involved rounding- up the lunar month to a count of 30, and then skipping over the pentecontad count (at the 50^th day). 

The normalized 'count of 30' in each lunar cycle was probably achieved by rounding up the count of each half-day to be equal to the count of a whole day.

This normalized month 'count of 30' for the lunar month cycle (almost like magic) produced a count of exactly 360 to match the length of each reoccurring annual cycle. 

A LUNAR-BASED COUNT (equal to 3 years) **

_______________________________________________________

Time 1 = Year 1 : 180 count + 180 count = 360 count .

Time 2 = Year 2 : 180 count + 180 count = 360 count *

Time 3 = Year 3 : 180 count + 180 count = 360 count +

_____________________________________________

* -- Requires an intercalated '15 count' at the month Elul 

+ -- Requires an intercalated '15 count' at the month Adar

(Total number of lunar cycles = 37)

(Total number of '30 counts' = 37)

** - Requires additional jubilee cycle intercalation (as cited in Chapter 5).

This normalized lunar-month count is referred to several times throughout the Bible Book of Revelation--where '1 Time + 2 Times + ½ Time' is shown to equal a count of 1260. (Note that 360 + 360 + 360 + 180 is equal to 1260). This length is also shown to be equal to a 42 month count (where 6 months + 6 months + 6 months + 6 months + 6 months + 6 months + 6 months is equal to 42 lunar months). 

In the Bible Book of Daniel, the count of '1 Time + 2 Times + ½ Time' is shown to be equal to a count of 1290. (Note that 360 + 360 + 360 + 180 is equal to 1260. Then the additional intercalated '15 count' at Elul, and the additional intercalated '15 count' at Adar rounds the count of 1260 up to be equal to a count of 1290). 

It is apparent that the 'Time, Times, and the Dividing Time' (or a 'count of 1260') shown in the Book of Revelation has the same length as the Time, Times, and the Dividing Time (or a 'count of 1290') shown in the Book of Daniel. The first count seemingly omitted the rate of intercalation, and the second count included the rate of intercalation.

The location of the 7^th year case of Tabernacles (appearing after 7-full months) can perhaps be recognized in a subsequent 'count of 1335' (as referenced in the Book of Daniel). It appears that this respective count went beyond the cited 'Time, Times, and Dividing Time' by an additional 'count of 30' (which seemingly corresponded to the length of a 3-year cycle and 7 lunar-months). The ultimate 'count of 1335' then terminated after an additional 'count of 15'. (Note that 1290 + 30 + 15 is equal to a 'count of 1335'). 

This additional '15 count' is indicated to have been an intercalated interval which logically would have occurred only amid the grid of '7-year-units (as detailed in Chapter Five). 

The information of the 'Times' and the 'count of 1335' may be significant in recognizing the early used offset of the intermission interval amid the annual cycle. The information minimally indicates that the intermission interval in the grid of 7-year-units occurred after the 1^st month and after the 7^th month. It therefore could be that amid the recurring 3-year cycle that intercalation was performed after the 6^th and after the 12^th lunar months (but only in the grid of 7-years, intercalation was performed after the 1^st and 7^th lunar months). 

The composite information seems to show that the 7^th year case of the Feast-Of Tabernacles, when it periodically occurred as a special case, did appear astride, or in alignment with, a half-month interval (for an intercalated 'count of 15'). Thus, the respective 7^th year case of this feast is indicated to have appeared 'at the count of 15', and immediately after a 7^th lunar month.

The following several paragraphs represent a compilation of all New Testament references to the Sabbath Cycle. (This compilation from the Greek New Testament can logically be correlated to the terms: 'Shabbath' and 'Shabbathown', as used in the Hebrew Bible). 

Interestingly, the Greek Texts use six different words in association to the Sabbath Cycle: (1) Sabbasin; (2) Sabbatw; (3) Sabbaton; (4) Sabbatou; (5) Sabbatwn; and: (6) Sabbata.

Based upon parsed New Testament text (put out by CCAT at the University of Pennsylvania), the following singular and plural forms of the noun Sabbath (or Greek: Sabbaton) occur in the New Testament:

          Plural      Singular 
         ---------    ----------- 
      1. Sabbasin     Sabbatw 
      2. Sabbata      Sabbaton 
      3. Sabbatwn     Sabbatou

Of particular interest is that throughout the New Testament both singular and plural usage--as well as different forms--of the respective Greek noun (Sabbaton) can be found.

The Luke/Acts author occasionally uses the word 'day' in association with the Sabbath Cycle. Consequently, I have elected to specially show this descriptor in bold type along with the Sabbath descriptor (if the 'day' descriptor did also appear in the original text). In general, the New Testament authors--for some reason--avoided using the 'day' descriptor in reference to the Sabbath Cycle (perhaps because the cycle can not adequately be described as occurring on only one day).

The Greek word 'Sabbasin' equates to plural Sabbaths (or to more than a single Sabbath). This word is used at least 15 times in New Testament passages as follows: 

[From AV Text (with selected Greek word substitutions):]

Matthew 12:1 ¶ At that time Jesus went on the 'Sabbasin' through the corn; and his disciples were an hungred, and began to pluck the ears of corn, and to eat.

Matthew 12:5 Or have ye not read in the law, how that on the 'Sabbasin' the priests in the temple profane the 'Sabbaton', and are blameless?

Matthew 12:10 And, behold, there was a man which had his hand withered. And they asked him, saying, Is it lawful to heal on the 'Sabbasin'? that they might accuse him.

Matthew 12:11 And he said unto them, What man shall there be among you, that shall have one sheep, and if it fall into a pit on the 'Sabbasin', will he not lay hold on it, and lift it out?

Matthew 12:12 How much then is a man better than a sheep? Wherefore it is lawful to do well on the 'Sabbasin'.

Mark 1:21 And they went into Capernaum; and straightway on the 'Sabbasin' he entered into the synagogue, and taught.

Mark 2:23 And it came to pass, that he went through the corn fields on the 'Sabbasin'; and his disciples began, as they went, to pluck the ears of corn.

Mark 2:24 And the Pharisees said unto him, Behold, why do they on the 'Sabbasin' that which is not lawful?

Mark 3:2 And they watched him, whether he would heal him on the 'Sabbasin'; that they might accuse him.

Mark 3:4 And he saith unto them, Is it lawful to do good on the 'Sabbasin', or to do evil? to save life, or to kill? But they held their peace.

Luke 4:31 And came down to Capernaum, a city of Galilee, and taught them on the 'Sabbasin'.

Luke 6:2 And certain of the Pharisees said unto them, Why do ye that which is not lawful to do on the 'Sabbasin'?

Luke 6:9 Then said Jesus unto them, I will ask you one thing; Is it lawful on the 'Sabbasin' to do good, or to do evil? to save life, or to destroy it?

Luke 13:10 And he was teaching in one of the synagogues on the 'Sabbasin'.

The Greek word: 'Sabbatw' (singular form of Sabbasin) is used 15 times in New Testament passages as follows:

[From AV Text (with selected Greek word substitutions):]

Matthew 12:2 But when the Pharisees saw it, they said unto him, Behold, thy disciples do that which is not lawful to do upon the 'Sabbatw'.

Matthew 24:20 But pray ye that your flight be not in the winter, neither on the 'Sabbatw':

Luke 6:1 And it came to pass on the second 'Sabbatw' after the first, that he went through the corn fields; and his disciples plucked the ears of corn, and did eat, rubbing them in their hands.

Luke 6:6 And it came to pass also on another 'Sabbatw', that he entered into the synagogue and taught: and there was a man whose right hand was withered.

Luke 6:7 And the scribes and Pharisees watched him, whether he would heal on the 'Sabbatw'; that they might find an accusation against him.

Luke 13:14 And the ruler of the synagogue answered with indignation, because that Jesus had healed on the 'Sabbatw' Day, and said unto the people, There are six days in which men ought to work: in them therefore come and be healed, and not on the 'Sabbatou' Day.

Luke 13:15 The Lord then answered him, and said, Thou hypocrite, doth not each one of you on the 'Sabbatw' loose his ox or his ass from the stall, and lead him away to watering?

Luke 14:1 And it came to pass, as he went into the house of one of the chief Pharisees to eat bread on the 'Sabbatw', that they watched him.

Luke 14:3 And Jesus answering spake unto the lawyers and Pharisees, saying, Is it lawful to heal on the 'Sabbatw'?

John 5:16 And therefore did the Jews persecute Jesus, and sought to slay him, because he had done these things on the 'Sabbatw'.

John 7:22 Moses therefore gave unto you circumcision; (not because it is of Moses, but of the fathers;) and ye on the 'Sabbatw' circumcise a man.

John 7:23 If a man on the 'Sabbatw' receive circumcision, that the law of Moses should not be broken; are ye angry at me, because I have made a man every whit whole on the 'Sabbatw'?

John 19:31 The Jews therefore, because it was the preparation, that the bodies should not remain upon the cross on the 'Sabbatw', (for that 'Sabbaton' was an high day,) besought Pilate that their legs might be broken, and that they might be taken away.

Acts 13:44 And the next 'Sabbatw' came almost the whole city together to hear the word of God. 

The Greek word 'Sabbaton' is used 14 times in New Testament passages as follows:

[From AV Text (with selected Greek word substitutions):]

Matthew 12:5 Or have ye not read in the law, how that on the 'Sabbasin' the priests in the temple profane the 'Sabbaton', and are blameless?

Mark 2:27 And he said unto them, The 'Sabbaton' was made for man, and not man for the 'Sabbaton'. 

Luke 23:54 And that day was the preparation, and the 'Sabbaton' drew on.

Luke 23:56 And they returned, and prepared spices and ointments; and rested the 'Sabbaton' according to the commandment.

John 5:9 And immediately the man was made whole, and took up his bed, and walked: and on the same day was the 'Sabbaton'.

John 5:10 The Jews therefore said unto him that was cured, It is the 'Sabbaton': it is not lawful for thee to carry thy bed.

John 5:18 Therefore the Jews sought the more to kill him, because he not only had broken the 'Sabbaton', but said also that God was his Father, making himself equal with God.

John 9:14 And it was the 'Sabbaton' when Jesus made the clay, and opened his eyes.

John 9:16 Therefore said some of the Pharisees, This man is not of God, because he keepeth not the 'Sabbaton'. Others said, How can a man that is a sinner do such miracles? And there was a division among them.

Acts 13:27 For they that dwell at Jerusalem, and their rulers, because they knew him not, nor yet the voices of the prophets which are read every 'Sabbaton', they have fulfilled them in condemning him.

Acts 13:42 And when the Jews were gone out of the synagogue, the Gentiles besought that these words might be preached to them the next 'Sabbaton'.

Acts 15:21 For Moses of old time hath in every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues every 'Sabbaton'.

Acts 18:4 And he reasoned in the synagogue every 'Sabbaton', and persuaded the Jews and the Greeks. 

The Greek word: 'Sabbata' (plural form of Sabbaton) is used numerous times in the Greek OT Septuagint, but it is only used 1 time in the Greek New Testament as follows:

Acts 17:2 And Paul, as his manner was, went in unto them, and three 'Sabbata' reasoned with them out of the scriptures…

The Greek word: 'Sabbatwn' (a plural form) is used 12 times in New Testament passages as follows:

[From AV Text (with selected Greek word substitutions):]

Matthew 28:1 On the eve of the 'Sabbatwn', toward the dawn of the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn' came Mary the Magdalene and the other Mary to see the sepulchre [paraphrased from YLT] .

Mark 16:2 And very early in the morning the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', they came unto the sepulchre at the rising of the sun.

Luke 4:16 And he came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up: and, as his custom was, he went into the synagogue on the 'Sabbatwn' Day, and stood up for to read.

Luke 24:1 Now upon the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', very early in the morning, they came unto the sepulchre, bringing the spices which they had prepared, and certain others with them.

John 20:1 The ONE of the 'Sabbatwn' cometh Mary Magdalene early, when it was yet dark, unto the sepulchre, and seeth the stone taken away from the sepulchre.

John 20:19 Then the same day at evening, being the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', when the doors were shut where the disciples were assembled for fear of the Jews, came Jesus and stood in the midst, and saith unto them, Peace be unto you.

Acts 13:14 But when they departed from Perga, they came to Antioch in Pisidia, and went into the synagogue on the 'Sabbatwn' Day, and sat down.

Acts 16:13 And on the 'Sabbatwn' Day we went out of the city by a river side, where prayer was wont to be made; and we sat down, and spake unto the women which resorted thither.

Acts 20:7 And upon the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', when the disciples came together to break bread, Paul preached unto them, ready to depart on the morrow; and continued his speech until midnight.

1 Corinthians 16:2 Upon the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn' let every one of you lay by him in store, as God hath prospered him, that there be no gatherings when I come.

Colossians 2:16 Let no man therefore judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect of an holyday, or of the new moon, or of the 'Sabbatwn': 

This interesting usage--where the unusual Greek word 'Mia' (or one) is paired-off and exclusively used in association with the unusual word 'Sabbatwn'--rather clearly indicates the usage of a formal calendar term. (This term seems to be equivalent to the cited definition of a renewal interval in the Shabbath-Shabbathown cycle found in the Hebrew Bible).

The Greek word: 'Sabbatou' (a singular form) is used 13 times in New Testament passages as follows:

[From YLT Text (with selected Greek word substitutions):]

Matthew 12:8 for the son of man is lord even of the 'Sabbatou'

Mark 2:28 so that the son of man is lord also of the 'Sabbatou'

Mark 6:2 and 'Sabbatou' having come, he began in the synagogue to teach, and many hearing were astonished, saying, `Whence hath this one these things? and what the wisdom that was given to him, that also such mighty works through his hands are done?

Mark 16:1 ¶ And the 'Sabbatou' having past, Mary the Magdalene, and Mary of James, and Salome, bought spices, that having come, they may anoint him,

Mark 16:9 ¶ And he, having risen in the morning of the first of the 'Sabbatou', did appear first to Mary the Magdalene, out of whom he had cast seven demons;

Luke 6:5 and he said to them, --`The Son of Man is lord also of the 'Sabbatou'.'

Luke 13:14 And the chief of the synagogue answering--much displeased that on the 'the 'Sabbatou' day Jesus healed--said to the multitude, `Six days there are in which it behoveth us to be working; in these, then, coming, be healed, and not on the 'Sabbatou' day.

Luke 13:16 and this one, being a daughter of Abraham, whom the Adversary bound, lo, eighteen years, did it not behove to be loosed from this bond on the 'Sabbatou' day?'

Luke 14:5 and answering them he said, `Of which of you shall an ass or ox fall into a pit, and he will not immediately draw it up on the 'Sabbatou' day?'

Luke 18:12 I fast twice in the 'Sabbatou', I give tithes of all things--as many as I possess.

John 19:31 ¶ The Jews, therefore, that the bodies might not remain on the cross on the 'Sabbatw' since it was the preparation, (for that 'Sabbatou' day was a great one,) asked of Pilate that their legs may be broken, and they taken away.

Acts 1:12 ¶ Then did they return to Jerusalem from the mount that is called of Olives, that is near Jerusalem, a 'Sabbatou' journey; 

In addition to the original forms of Sabbath (as cited above), a derivative: 'Sabbatismos' is used once amid New Testament passages, as follows:

Hebrews 4:9 There remaineth therefore a 'Sabbatismos' to the people of God.

Appendix D

A Lunar Calendar In Early Christian History

In contradiction to the unique solar calendar discovered at Qumran, Christians of the First Century are indicated to have used a lunar-based calendar. The usage of a lunar calendar by early Christians is manifest in the New Testament--where the form of a religious calendar comprised of Pentecost segments can be identified. 

The outline of this calendar containing a special count of Pentecost can be verified from Gospel Books (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John)--where detail of the resurrection of Jesus is provided. This date (the resurrection) is noted to have occurred on a uniquely special ONE date (which uniquely followed the unit of a week). Seven full weeks after the date of the resurrection, a subsequent festival called Pentecost is detailed. (This interesting seven-weeks count ending at a 50^th day is noted in the Book of Acts, Chapter 2). 

New Testament instances of the celebration of a feast of Pentecost can be found in Acts 2; Acts 20:16; and also in 1 Corinthians 16:8. The observance of this feast is elsewhere prevalently noted amid the writings of early Christian. It is significant that a firstfruits case of the feast of seven-weeks (Pentecost) continues to be celebrated among modern Jews and Christians.

The Christian use of a Pentecontad Calendar is further manifest from subsequently produced Christian documents--where a number of early Christian writers unilaterally refer to the date of the resurrection of Jesus as having occurred upon an Eighth Day amid the weekly cycle. 

Some of the passages--now attributed to early writers may not be completely authentic (having been embellished or altered by subsequent writers). In spite of questionable alteration, the surviving texts contain a clearly identifiable referral to an original sequence of weeks (a sequence which almost unquestionably contained a very special singular date which stood out from the cycle of weeks).

The following passages represent this unusual referral to an Eighth Day (a unique day which stood-out from a cycle of weeks). This date is consistently noted in association with the date of the resurrection of Jesus (a referral prevalently made by many of the early writers):

130AD BARNABAS: "Moreover God says…. The Sabbath which I have made in which, when I have rested from all things, I will make the beginning of the Eighth Day which is the beginning of another world.' Wherefore we Christians keep the Eighth Day for joy, on which also Jesus arose from the dead and when he appeared ascended into heaven." (15:8f, The Epistle of Barnabas, 100 AD, Ante-Nicene Fathers , vol. 1, pg. 147).

150AD JUSTIN: "The commandment of circumcision, requiring them always to circumcise the children on the eighth day, was a type of the true circumcision by which we are circumcised from error and evil through the resurrection from the dead on the first day of the week of Jesus Christ our Lord. For the first day of the week, although it is the first of all days, yet according to the number of the days in a cycle is called the eighth (while still remaining the first)." (Dialogue 41:4).

150AD EPISTLE OF THE APOSTLES.-- "I [Christ] have come into being on the Eighth Day which is the day of the Lord. " (18).

190AD CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA: "Plato prophetically speaks of the Lord's Day in the tenth book of the Republic, in these words: 'And when seven days have passed to each of them in the meadow, on the Eighth they must go on." (Miscellanies V.xiv.106.2). 

190AD CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA: "The seventh day is proclaimed a day of rest, preparing by abstention from evil for the Primal Day, our true rest." (Ibid. VII. Xvi. 138.1).

250AD CYPRIAN: "The Eight Day, that is, the first day after the Sabbath, and the Lord's Day." (Epistle 58, Sec 4).

Notice from the cited passages that early writers referred to an Eighth Day or a ONE Day as being synonymous with the Lord's Day. 

The term, the Lord's Day, or sometimes Sun's Day, survives from many of the early accounts. 

Based upon the early prevalent use of these terms (on the part of early Christians), it seems pertinent to at least consider that the date of the resurrection occurred in association with a special ONE-WHOLE-DAY or a 50^th DAY. 

If the Second Temple religiously observed a calendar containing Pentecost segments (as documented in Chapter Five), then the resurrection date may have occurred exactly in-line with a renewal of the seven-weeks harvest cycle (or at a seventh-week festival). 

As more fully shown in subsequent sections, the resurrection date can clearly be related to a hebdomadal count or cycle of seven-days. Essentially, the date occurred immediately after the 7^th day of the weekly cycle. 

Thus, the alignment of this date with the weekly cycle is significant in the regard that the date appears to be unique. Christian history seems to indicate that this day (as a festival) stood completely-apart and out from the cycle of weeks!

There is very little doubt that the Lord's Day Festival was unilaterally agreed upon as a time of special assembly by the early Christians. 

90AD DIDACHE: "And on the Day of our Lord's resurrection, which is the 'Lord's Day', meet more diligently, …. what apology will he make to God who does not assemble on that day to hear the saving word concerning the resurrection..." (Constitutions of the Holy Apostles, Ante-Nicene Fathers, V7, pg. 423).

90AD DIDACHE: "....every Lord's Day, hold your solemn assemblies, …for … the Lord's Day, being the Day of the resurrection.." (Constitutions of the Holy Apostles, Ante-Nicene Fathers V7, pg. 449).

90AD DIDACHE: "On the Day of the resurrection of the Lord, that is, the Lord's Day, assemble yourselves together …" (Constitutions of the Holy Apostles, Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol. 7, pg. 471).

107AD IGNATIUS: " ... let every friend of Christ keep the Lord's Day as 'a festival', the resurrection-day, the 'queen' and 'chief' of all the days of the week…" (Ignatius, Epistle to the Magnesians, chp 9. Ante-Nicene Fathers , vol. 1, pg. 62-63.). 

180AD GOSPEL OF PETER: "Early in the morning when the Sabbath dawned, a multitude from Jerusalem and the surrounding country came to see the sealed sepulchre. In the night in which the Lord's Day dawned, while the soldiers in pairs for each watch were keeping guard, a great voice came from heaven…Early in the morning of the Lord's Day Mary Magdalene, a disciple of the Lord …. came to the sepulchre. " (9:34f.; 12:50f.). 

It is evident from composite early Christian records that a unanimous agreement --and a synonymous definition--of a unique Lord's Day Festival was in common. Here, it is very unusual that there is hardly any evidence that this assembly day was in any dispute, either among Jewish converts, or Gentile proselytes.

From the composite content of early Christian sources (those written close to the time of the Second Temple) the following summary points ultimately seem clear: 

• The date of the Lord's Day--may have been synonymous with a Pentecost event--and consequently the Lord's Day may have been counted in association with on ongoing seven-weeks cycle. 
• The Lord's Day, as a unique 'Eighth Day', is indicated to have stood completely out of the weekly cycle. 
• The Lord's Day (as a renewal date amid the ongoing seven-weeks cycle) was a date for special assembly by early Christians. 

Clearly the 'Eighth Day' wasn't newly invented by the early Christians, but rather, the Lord's Day is synonymous to a special conjunction of the renewal interval (which periodically appears at seven-week intervals amid the Sabbath cycle. (Even in the New Testament, the Eighth Day is graphically recorded to have coincided with Mia Sabbatwn as further detailed below).

In summary to the above, it seems that in the historical context of the Second Temple, the recorded resurrection of Jesus is indicated to have occurred upon a renewal for the seven-weeks cycle. This special date occurred upon what must have been an Eighth Day (a festival day which immediately followed the seventh-day of a seventh week). Early Christians attributed special significance to this periodically reoccurring Eighth Day--which was routinely celebrated as a special assembly date, and at the frequency of each seven weeks. 

A Calendar Of Weeks And The Resurrection

It is significant that the observance of a unique singular date can be recited from amid the Greek Version (the original language) of the New Testament. This date can be recited in 7 total instances. In particular, the singular date is perhaps most evident in the Book of John (as further detailed below). 

The current analysis will begin by citing the existence of this date from the Book of Mark--where, in Mark, a significant reference to a singular date is made:

"… early in the morning the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', they came …. " (Mark 16:2).

Initially, it might seem that this passage reflects a date which pertains to the first of the Sabbath cycle; however, upon closer inspection it is clear that the respective Greek word 'Mia' does not fully equate to this meaning. Instead, 'Mia' is related to a singular meaning which equates to 'ONE' (not first). 

In addition, the word used for Sabbath is a plural form ('Sabbatwn'), and this usage seemingly refers to one of the specific lunar phases (as cited in Appendix A).

Six additional New Testament passages also reflect this peculiar date: 

[From AV Text (with selected Greek word substitutions):]

Matthew 28:1 In the end of the Sabbath cycle, as it began to dawn toward the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', came Mary Magdalene and the other Mary to see the sepulchre. 

Luke 24:1 Now upon the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', very early in the morning, they came unto the sepulchre, bringing the spices which they had prepared, and certain others with them.

John 20:1 The ONE of the 'Sabbatwn' cometh Mary Magdalene early, when it was yet dark, unto the sepulchre, and seeth the stone taken away from the sepulchre.

John 20:19 Then the same day at evening, being the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', when the doors were shut where the disciples were assembled for fear of the Jews, came Jesus and stood in the midst, and saith unto them, Peace be unto you.

Acts 20:7 And upon the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn', when the disciples came together to break bread, Paul preached unto them, ready to depart on the morrow; and continued his speech until midnight.

1 Corinthians 16:2 [By] the ONE of the 'Sabbatwn' let every one of you lay by him in store, as God hath prospered him, that there be no gatherings when I come.

The uniqueness of 'Mia' as a 'ONE' (and 'Sabbatwn' for a lunar-phase event) is significant because these passages all surely refer to a lunar-cycle date (where in all seven instances 'Mia' is additionally used in reference to a cycle of seven-weeks).

The loss of the singular nuance of meaning in this date--as inherited through the popular translations--makes it all but impossible to comprehend the outline of the early lunar-based calendar that was in use.

It is noteworthy that the syntax usage ('Mia') is identical in all seven of the cited passages--where the term 'ONE' of the 'Sabbatwn' is consistently used. This peculiar agreement (in all these passages) tends to point to the existence of a unique calendar date--where the repetition of the same two words: 'Mia' and 'Sabbatwn' imply a lunar-cycle term. (For additional information, refer to Appendix A).

The popular English translation of this text is: 'first day of the week', but the term 'first' in the original Greek is more properly 'proton' or 'protos'. Instead, all of the seven cited passages unilaterally use the same identical word 'Mia'. Again, this conformity of usage--in all seven instances--proves that the translation 'first' is not fully correct. Clearly and simply, the meaning of the unique date in the cited seven passages points away from the meaning of 'first day' and, instead, has a meaning akin to a singular or a 'ONE' (which would refer to either a one-stage, or a one-whole-day). Again, the consistency of this usage (in seven diverse instances) indicates that the 'ONE' of the 'Sabbatwn' refers to a formal lunar-calendar date. 

The King James translators translated the original Greek word 'mia' in 79 instances--where they correctly translated this word to encompass the meaning of a singular or a 'one' in 71 of the 79 instances. It then seems to be extremely significant that in 8 other instances, the translators translated the Greek word 'mia' as first (not one), and 7 of these instances are shown in scriptural references from above. (There is no compelling reason why the 7 instances--as cited above--should be translated any differently from the other 71 instances).

In a lunar-based calendar, the rate of a special 'ONE' would have stood completely out from the standard weekly cycle of seven lunar stages, and would have been an altogether separate additional unit of time (as a renewal for the weeks). 

The important nuance in the meaning of the cited date--of being a singular or a 'ONE' and not a first--is significant in recognizing that the early definition of the lunar week depended upon the rate of a unique 'ONE', a special stage which probably appeared amid 7 + 7 lunar-stages (of the Moon waxing and waning) (or the rate of one-whole-day would have been counted each 7 weeks).

In association with this very unique 'ONE' date, the 7 verses listed above consistently use the same term: 'Sabbatwn' (a plural form of 'Sabbaton').

Thus, the 7 New Testament passages--which use the expression: 'Mia Sabbatwn'--seem to reflect a unique lunar-stage interval when the 'Sabbatwn' may have included an additional 'ONE' stage (but the meaning could also be relative to a seventh-week festival). 

This formal lunar-stage date is specifically used in all four accounts of the resurrection--where Jesus is indicated to have been crucified upon the day which preceded Passover (in the first lunar month). The resurrection (which occurred immediately after, or between, 'Sabbatwn') is unilaterally recorded to have occurred upon the special date 'Mia Sabbatwn'. 

The Book of Matthew contains one of the four accounts which specifically refers to this Sabbath interval (the 'Sabbatwn'). Matthew uses an interesting time-line which leads up to and includes the resurrection of Jesus as follows:

[AV Text with selected Greek word substitutions):] 

Matthew 27:35 And they crucified him, and parted his garments, casting lots… 

Matthew 27:45-50 Now from the sixth hour [or noontime] there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour [mid-afternoon]. And about the ninth hour [the middle of the afternoon] Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? that is to say, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? …Jesus, when he had cried again with a loud voice, aphiemi [let go] the pneuma [spirit]. [Jesus cried with a loud voice and then expired (or no longer breathed). The AV translators use 'gave up the ghost', and this seems to considerably stretch the original meaning].

Matthew 27:57-61 When the opsios [the later afternoon] was come, there came a rich man of Arimathaea, named Joseph, who also himself was Jesus' disciple: He went to Pilate, and begged the body of Jesus. Then Pilate commanded the body to be delivered. And when Joseph had taken the body, he wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, And laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock: and he rolled a great stone to the door of the sepulchre, and departed. And there was Mary Magdalene, and the other Mary, sitting over against the sepulchre.

Matthew 27:62-65 Now the epaurion [morrow], that followed the paraskeue [preparation], the chief priests and Pharisees came together unto Pilate, Saying, Sir, we remember that that deceiver said, while he was yet alive, After three days I will rise again. Command therefore that the sepulchre be made sure until the third day, lest his disciples come by night, and steal him away, and say unto the people, He is risen from the dead: so the last error shall be worse than the first. Pilate said unto them, Ye have a watch: go your way, make it as sure as ye can.

[Based on YLT version:] Matthew 18:1 And on the eve of the Sabbatwn, at the dawn, toward the ONE of the Sabbatwn, came Mary the Magdalene, and the other Mary, to see the sepulchre,

[AV Text:] Matthew 28:2-6 And, behold, there was a great earthquake: for the angel of the Lord descended from heaven, and came and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it. His countenance was like lightning, and his raiment white as snow: And for fear of him the keepers did shake, and became as dead men. And the angel answered and said unto the women, Fear not ye: for I know that ye seek Jesus, which was crucified. He is not here: for he is risen… 

Notice carefully from Chapter 18, and verse 1, that the 'eve of the 'Sabbatwn' would have corresponded to the Moon evening between the 14th and 15th (the night to be observed). If the 'ONE at the Sabbatwn' is interpreted to have occurred after this evening, then it would have been counted as beginning with dawn on the 15th. 

The same date appears in the account from Mark, who supplies a bit more detail of the entire chronology of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. Mark's time-line follows: 

[AV Text with selected Greek word substitutions):] 

Mark 15:25 And it was the third hour [at around 9 o'clock in the morning], and they crucified him.

Mark 15:33 And when the sixth hour [at noontime] was come, there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour [at around 3 o'clock in the afternoon].

Mark 15:34 And at the ninth hour [3 PM] Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani? which is, being interpreted, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?

Mark 15:37 And Jesus cried with a loud voice, and gave up the ghost [or rather, he stopped breathing and expired]..

Mark 15:42-43 And now when the even was come [after 3 o'clock in the afternoon], because it was the paraskeue [preparation], that is, 'Before-Sabbaton' Joseph of Arimathaea, an honourable counsellor, which also waited for the kingdom of God, came, and went in boldly unto Pilate, and craved the body of Jesus.

Mark 15:46-47 And he bought fine linen, and took him down, and wrapped him in the linen, and laid him in a sepulchre which was hewn out of a rock, and rolled a stone unto the door of the sepulchre. And Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joses beheld where he was laid.

Mark 16:1 Kai diaginomai tou Sabbatou [And when the Sabbatou was come], Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome, had bought sweet spices, that they might come and anoint him.[Apparently, the women had bought the spices in the late afternoon, and before the coming of the Sabbatou.]

[By implication, the women then rested on the Seventh-Day according to the Law of the Ten-Commandments.]

Mark 16:2 And very early in the morning the ONE at Sabbatwn, they came unto the sepulchre at the rising of the sun. 

Mark 16:4-6 And when they looked, they saw that the stone was rolled away: for it was very great. And entering into the sepulchre, they saw a young man sitting on the right side, clothed in a long white garment; and they were affrighted. And he saith unto them, Be not affrighted: Ye seek Jesus of Nazareth, which was crucified: he is risen… 

The account from Mark closely parallels the account from Matthew. Notice the appearance of the same interesting date: the 'ONE at Sabbatwn' in both Mark 16:2 and also in Matthew 18:1. This interesting date is in peculiar common with both the accounts, and it seems to be identifiable as a special extended Sabbath interval/renewal. This extended part of the Sabbath interval began immediately following the Seventh-Day Sabbath. In both of the cited instances, this special intermission interval is indicated to encompass a single or ONE (not a Seventh-Day of the week). This unique date logically occurred amid the cycle of weeks as a unit of time which perceptually stood forth from the weekly cycle (possibly the rate of : 14 ½ lunar stages… + ONE… + 14 ½ lunar stages). 

Thus, the original texts from both Matthew and Mark seem to clearly and directly identify the appearance of a special lunar-cycle date: 'ONE at Sabbatwn'. 

This unique date can also be identified within the original Greek text in the Book of Luke as follows: 

[YLT Text with selected Greek word substitutions):] 

Luke 23:33 and when they came to the place that is called Skull, there they crucified him …

Luke 23:44-46 And it was, as it were, the sixth hour, and darkness came over all the land till the ninth hour, and the sun was darkened, and the vail of the sanctuary was rent in the midst, and having cried with a loud voice, Jesus said, `Father, to Thy hands I commit my spirit;' and these things having said, he breathed forth the spirit.

Luke 23:50-53 And lo, a man, by name Joseph, being a counsellor, a man good and righteous, --he was not consenting to their counsel and deed--from Arimathea, a city of the Jews, who also himself was expecting the reign of God, he, having gone near to Pilate, asked the body of Jesus, and having taken it down, he wrapped it in fine linen, and placed it in a tomb hewn out, where no one was yet laid. 

Luke 23:54 And the hemera hn paraskeue [the day was a preparation], and Sabbaton was approaching,

Luke 23:55 and the women also who have come with him out of Galilee having followed after, beheld the tomb, and how his body was placed,

Luke 23:56 and having turned back, they made ready spices and ointments, and on the Sabbaton, indeed, they rested, according to the command.

Luke 24:1-6 And on the ONE of the Sabbatwn, at early dawn, they came to the tomb, bearing the spices they made ready, and certain others with them, and they found the stone having been rolled away from the tomb, and having gone in, they found not the body of the Lord Jesus. And it came to pass, while they are perplexed about this, that lo, two men stood by them in glittering apparel, and on their having become afraid, and having inclined the face to the earth, they said to them, `Why do ye seek the living with the dead? he is not here, but was raised…

The date referenced in Luke 24:1--a unique 'ONE at Sabbatwn'--seems to be the very same date referenced by other New Testament authors (and other early sources), where a special stand-apart intermission interval (a renewal of the Sabbath cycle) seemingly occurred in the early used lunar-based calendar.

An Eighth Day In The Book Of John 

The Gospel author John also referred to what almost surely has to be the same unique singular date in two instances. In addition, John refers to the appearance of a unique Eighth Day in yet a third instance--as follows: 

[YLT Text with selected Greek word substitutions):] 

John 19:13-16 Pilate, therefore, … sat down upon the tribunal--to a place called, `Pavement,' and in Hebrew, Gabbatha; and it was the preparation of the passover, and as it were the sixth hour,…Then, therefore, he delivered him up to them, that he may be crucified, and they took Jesus and led him away,

John 19:30 …Jesus… said, `It hath been finished;' and having bowed the head, gave up the spirit.

John 19:31 The Jews, therefore, that the bodies might not remain on the cross on the Sabbatw, since it was the preparation, (for that Sabbatou was a Megas [great] day,) asked of Pilate that… they taken away.